Social Marketing Ethics 1
Social
Marketing
Ethics
REPORT PREPARED FOR THE
NATIONAL SOCIAL MARKETING CENTRE
Professor Lynne Eagle
Ethics defined
,Contents
Foreword 3
Introduction 4
Ethics Defined 5
Ethical dilemmas within social marketing 6
Ethical Frameworks 7
Ethical Issues in Targeting 9
Literacy Issues 9
Children 10
Non-indigenous Populations 10
Methods 10
Partnerships 10
Easy to reach versus hard to reach 11
Fear Appeals 13
Humour 13
Incentives and Penalties 13
Role of Culture in Establishing Ethical Standards 13
Research Ethics and the NHS 15
Code of Ethics 18
Ethical Tools 21
Code Development Recommendations 23
Development Processes 23
Ethics Approvals: Guidance on Assessing Ethical Issues 24
Appropriate Ethics Approval Process 25
Draft Code of Ethics 26
Conclusion 27
Appendix A: 28
Selected Resources for Consideration in Developing Codes of Ethics
for Social Marketing: Sample Ethics Checklists
Appendix B: 32
Selected Resources for Consideration in Developing Codes of Ethics
for Social Marketing: Samples of Existing Codes of Ethics: Marketing / Health Promotion
Appendix C: 35
Selected Resources for Consideration in Developing Codes of Ethics
for Social Marketing: Useful Links / Resources
Appendix D: 40
Selected Resources for Consideration in Developing Codes of Ethics
for Social Marketing: Academic Resources
References 41
Ethics defined
,Social Marketing Ethics 3
Foreword
This report has been developed by Professor Lynn Eagle from the Bristol Social Marketing
Centre, Bristol Business School University of West of England with contributions from
staff at the National Social Marketing Centre.
The increased profile of social marketing has led to calls for mechanisms by which ethical
issues can be indentified and resolved. While there has been some work undertaken on
the development of checklists and codes of ethics, there is a clear need for widespread
and vigorous debate on the content of such resources and the means in which they can
be implemented.
Firstly, there is a need to develop a common understanding of ethics within marketing
in general and within social marketing in particular. There is then the need to recognise
the range of ethical dilemmas that may occur in the development and implementation of
social marketing interventions. These need to be considered together with the range of
unintended effects already identified as occurring within the field, particularly in relation
to health promotion.
There are several common frameworks that can be used to evaluate and debate ethical
issues. The two most commonly used are based on intention-focussed or on outcomes
focussed reasoning. The latter includes the often cited utilitarian perspective in which
behaviour is regarded as ethical if it results in the ‘greatest good for the greatest
number’. Additional frameworks are founded on relativism, asserting that there cannot
be a universal set of ethical principles; implicit social contracts governing the rights
and responsibilities of members of society; and then we have those based on theories of
justice.
Problems may arise when social marketing interventions aimed at helping one segment
of the population may disadvantage others. They may also arise where marketing
communications through mass media form a substantial part of an intervention. While
ethical frameworks are not explicitly stated in the provisions of communications industry
regulators, a recent ruling from the Advertising Standards Authority indicated that,
even if positive outcomes for large numbers of the target population are achieved,
psychological harm among those not part of the target group render an intervention
unethical and thus unacceptable. This suggests the need to re-evaluate the use of fear
appeals as part of interventions.
Checklists and codes of ethics aimed at the social marketing sector must be viewed
within the context of existing professional and sector codes. Attention also needs to be
paid to other regulatory mechanisms, such as the Research Governance Framework of
the Department of Health which impacts on research and interventions conducted under
the auspices of PCTs. While specific social marketing codes may have value in educating
inexperienced practitioners and sensitising them to ethical issues, considerable
development work is still required.
...all stakeholders must In order to ensure adoption and support, all stakeholders must be involved in
discussions regarding the development of ethical codes of practice within social
be involved in discussions marketing. A particular challenge relates to deciding on mechanisms by which breaches
of codes should be identified and dealt with. This is necessary due to the diverse
regarding the development range of disciplines that are involved in the sector, and the lack of formal disciplinary
mechanisms within social marketing compared to those found in other professions. Draft
of ethical codes of practice outlines of procedures and processes that might be appropriate have been included here,
within social marketing along with a draft code of ethics for social marketing.
We welcome comments and suggestions on this report from all those concerned with
developing effective social marketing practice. The National Social Marketing Centre
will consult widely on the draft code of conduct set out in this report, with a view to
publishing a national code of practice for social marketing by the end of 2009.
Professor Jeff French
Director
National Social Marketing Centre
Note: the literature review section of this report is based on material prepared for the forthcoming text: Eagle, L., Dahl, S.,
Tapp, A., & Bird, S. (2009) Social Marketing: Principles and Practice. Material used with permission of the publisher.
Foreword
, Social Marketing Ethics 4
Introduction
This report starts with a brief discussion of the definition of ethics and of the types
of ethical dilemmas that may occur within social marketing activity. The major ethical
frameworks that are evident within the academic literature are then discussed before
an examination of specific issues relating to targeting, the use of fear appeals and the
role of culture in establishing ethical standards.
The strengths and weaknesses of codes of ethics are then reviewed, with challenges in
development, gaining acceptance and adoption highlighted. Mechanisms that could be
considered in maintaining codes, providing advice on ethical dilemmas and possible
disciplinary processes that might be appropriate within a sector that does not have
formal membership and accompanying disciplinary procedures are then presented.
Before considering each of these topic areas, there is, of course the issue of who
defines desired behaviour, which behaviours to target for change and the level of
resources that should be allocated to this. Generally, behaviour change may be
aimed at ‘social good’, such as improving overall population health and wellbeing,
or minimising health inequalities and addressing obesity and exercise issues.
Interventions aimed at minimising the adverse effects of behaviours such as smoking
or unwise alcohol consumption may be seem as an infringement of personal freedoms,
rights which need to be balanced against the actual or potential harm inflicted on
others through these actions.
Additionally, consideration of potential harm to others that may arise as a
consequence of a social marketing intervention should be a requirement in the
development of any intervention. Indeed, in developing interventions, we must ask,
“who has the mandate to represent large and diverse populations for the purpose of
informed consent, and how can this be implemented?”1, p. 537. How are individual
How are individual freedoms of choice and individual rights balanced against benefits for society as a
freedoms of choice and whole? And, in communicating risk, who decides whether levels of risk that may be
acceptable to different segments of society are acceptable to society as a whole2.
individual rights balanced
against benefits for society Some specific criticisms of social marketing have included the following3:
as a whole? • The concept of exchange rests on the view that people act rationally when there is
much evidence to suggest this is not the case.
• Social marketing is patronizing and manipulative with its focus on behaviour
change,
• Social marketing appeals to people’s base instincts
• Social marketing extends the power imbalance between the state and individuals in
favour of the state.
A detailed analysis of these issues can be found in the original paper cited above.
What is clear however is that social marketing, like all other interventions, needs to be
guided by ethical standards. The checklist and draft code at the end of this paper sets
out some of the key questions that social marketers need to address to ensure ethical
practise is maintained
Ethics is a term which is debated vigorously, with multiple definitions evident,
depending on the perspective of the discipline within which the debate is occurring.
For example, within philosophy, the focus may be on moral choices, i.e. those
regarding what is right or just behaviour, as opposed to simply remaining within the
provisions of the law in a specific situation and the nature of morals themselves.
Within specific professions, such as medicine or accountancy, the debate may be
more focussed on the rules or standards governing the conduct of members of their
profession.
Introduction
Social
Marketing
Ethics
REPORT PREPARED FOR THE
NATIONAL SOCIAL MARKETING CENTRE
Professor Lynne Eagle
Ethics defined
,Contents
Foreword 3
Introduction 4
Ethics Defined 5
Ethical dilemmas within social marketing 6
Ethical Frameworks 7
Ethical Issues in Targeting 9
Literacy Issues 9
Children 10
Non-indigenous Populations 10
Methods 10
Partnerships 10
Easy to reach versus hard to reach 11
Fear Appeals 13
Humour 13
Incentives and Penalties 13
Role of Culture in Establishing Ethical Standards 13
Research Ethics and the NHS 15
Code of Ethics 18
Ethical Tools 21
Code Development Recommendations 23
Development Processes 23
Ethics Approvals: Guidance on Assessing Ethical Issues 24
Appropriate Ethics Approval Process 25
Draft Code of Ethics 26
Conclusion 27
Appendix A: 28
Selected Resources for Consideration in Developing Codes of Ethics
for Social Marketing: Sample Ethics Checklists
Appendix B: 32
Selected Resources for Consideration in Developing Codes of Ethics
for Social Marketing: Samples of Existing Codes of Ethics: Marketing / Health Promotion
Appendix C: 35
Selected Resources for Consideration in Developing Codes of Ethics
for Social Marketing: Useful Links / Resources
Appendix D: 40
Selected Resources for Consideration in Developing Codes of Ethics
for Social Marketing: Academic Resources
References 41
Ethics defined
,Social Marketing Ethics 3
Foreword
This report has been developed by Professor Lynn Eagle from the Bristol Social Marketing
Centre, Bristol Business School University of West of England with contributions from
staff at the National Social Marketing Centre.
The increased profile of social marketing has led to calls for mechanisms by which ethical
issues can be indentified and resolved. While there has been some work undertaken on
the development of checklists and codes of ethics, there is a clear need for widespread
and vigorous debate on the content of such resources and the means in which they can
be implemented.
Firstly, there is a need to develop a common understanding of ethics within marketing
in general and within social marketing in particular. There is then the need to recognise
the range of ethical dilemmas that may occur in the development and implementation of
social marketing interventions. These need to be considered together with the range of
unintended effects already identified as occurring within the field, particularly in relation
to health promotion.
There are several common frameworks that can be used to evaluate and debate ethical
issues. The two most commonly used are based on intention-focussed or on outcomes
focussed reasoning. The latter includes the often cited utilitarian perspective in which
behaviour is regarded as ethical if it results in the ‘greatest good for the greatest
number’. Additional frameworks are founded on relativism, asserting that there cannot
be a universal set of ethical principles; implicit social contracts governing the rights
and responsibilities of members of society; and then we have those based on theories of
justice.
Problems may arise when social marketing interventions aimed at helping one segment
of the population may disadvantage others. They may also arise where marketing
communications through mass media form a substantial part of an intervention. While
ethical frameworks are not explicitly stated in the provisions of communications industry
regulators, a recent ruling from the Advertising Standards Authority indicated that,
even if positive outcomes for large numbers of the target population are achieved,
psychological harm among those not part of the target group render an intervention
unethical and thus unacceptable. This suggests the need to re-evaluate the use of fear
appeals as part of interventions.
Checklists and codes of ethics aimed at the social marketing sector must be viewed
within the context of existing professional and sector codes. Attention also needs to be
paid to other regulatory mechanisms, such as the Research Governance Framework of
the Department of Health which impacts on research and interventions conducted under
the auspices of PCTs. While specific social marketing codes may have value in educating
inexperienced practitioners and sensitising them to ethical issues, considerable
development work is still required.
...all stakeholders must In order to ensure adoption and support, all stakeholders must be involved in
discussions regarding the development of ethical codes of practice within social
be involved in discussions marketing. A particular challenge relates to deciding on mechanisms by which breaches
of codes should be identified and dealt with. This is necessary due to the diverse
regarding the development range of disciplines that are involved in the sector, and the lack of formal disciplinary
mechanisms within social marketing compared to those found in other professions. Draft
of ethical codes of practice outlines of procedures and processes that might be appropriate have been included here,
within social marketing along with a draft code of ethics for social marketing.
We welcome comments and suggestions on this report from all those concerned with
developing effective social marketing practice. The National Social Marketing Centre
will consult widely on the draft code of conduct set out in this report, with a view to
publishing a national code of practice for social marketing by the end of 2009.
Professor Jeff French
Director
National Social Marketing Centre
Note: the literature review section of this report is based on material prepared for the forthcoming text: Eagle, L., Dahl, S.,
Tapp, A., & Bird, S. (2009) Social Marketing: Principles and Practice. Material used with permission of the publisher.
Foreword
, Social Marketing Ethics 4
Introduction
This report starts with a brief discussion of the definition of ethics and of the types
of ethical dilemmas that may occur within social marketing activity. The major ethical
frameworks that are evident within the academic literature are then discussed before
an examination of specific issues relating to targeting, the use of fear appeals and the
role of culture in establishing ethical standards.
The strengths and weaknesses of codes of ethics are then reviewed, with challenges in
development, gaining acceptance and adoption highlighted. Mechanisms that could be
considered in maintaining codes, providing advice on ethical dilemmas and possible
disciplinary processes that might be appropriate within a sector that does not have
formal membership and accompanying disciplinary procedures are then presented.
Before considering each of these topic areas, there is, of course the issue of who
defines desired behaviour, which behaviours to target for change and the level of
resources that should be allocated to this. Generally, behaviour change may be
aimed at ‘social good’, such as improving overall population health and wellbeing,
or minimising health inequalities and addressing obesity and exercise issues.
Interventions aimed at minimising the adverse effects of behaviours such as smoking
or unwise alcohol consumption may be seem as an infringement of personal freedoms,
rights which need to be balanced against the actual or potential harm inflicted on
others through these actions.
Additionally, consideration of potential harm to others that may arise as a
consequence of a social marketing intervention should be a requirement in the
development of any intervention. Indeed, in developing interventions, we must ask,
“who has the mandate to represent large and diverse populations for the purpose of
informed consent, and how can this be implemented?”1, p. 537. How are individual
How are individual freedoms of choice and individual rights balanced against benefits for society as a
freedoms of choice and whole? And, in communicating risk, who decides whether levels of risk that may be
acceptable to different segments of society are acceptable to society as a whole2.
individual rights balanced
against benefits for society Some specific criticisms of social marketing have included the following3:
as a whole? • The concept of exchange rests on the view that people act rationally when there is
much evidence to suggest this is not the case.
• Social marketing is patronizing and manipulative with its focus on behaviour
change,
• Social marketing appeals to people’s base instincts
• Social marketing extends the power imbalance between the state and individuals in
favour of the state.
A detailed analysis of these issues can be found in the original paper cited above.
What is clear however is that social marketing, like all other interventions, needs to be
guided by ethical standards. The checklist and draft code at the end of this paper sets
out some of the key questions that social marketers need to address to ensure ethical
practise is maintained
Ethics is a term which is debated vigorously, with multiple definitions evident,
depending on the perspective of the discipline within which the debate is occurring.
For example, within philosophy, the focus may be on moral choices, i.e. those
regarding what is right or just behaviour, as opposed to simply remaining within the
provisions of the law in a specific situation and the nature of morals themselves.
Within specific professions, such as medicine or accountancy, the debate may be
more focussed on the rules or standards governing the conduct of members of their
profession.
Introduction
