The Psychology of Influence
Theory, research and practice
J. van der Pligt en M. Vliek
Psychology of Media and Communication
Summary by Gina Fialka
,Table of Contents
1. Influence: definition, history and a model ........................................................... 4
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 4
A brief history of influence research .................................................................................. 4
2. Attitudes and behaviour ............................................................................................ 6
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 6
Attitudes, attitude formation and behaviour ................................................................... 6
Reasoned and intuitive attitudes ......................................................................................... 7
Measuring attitudes and behaviour .................................................................................... 8
Factors involved in influence: ............................................................................................ 10
3. Persuasion through argumentation .................................................................... 11
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 11
Argument and persuasion ................................................................................................... 11
Dual-process models of persuasion ................................................................................. 11
Figures of speech as persuasive tools in argumentation .......................................... 12
Value-expectancy models and influence ........................................................................ 13
4. Cognitive heuristics .................................................................................................. 14
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 14
Cognitive heuristics in decision making ......................................................................... 14
The representativeness heuristic ..................................................................................... 14
The availability heuristic ..................................................................................................... 15
Framing effects ........................................................................................................................ 15
The anchoring and adjustment heuristic ....................................................................... 15
The affect heuristic ................................................................................................................ 16
The more-is-better heuristic .............................................................................................. 16
5. Social heuristics ......................................................................................................... 17
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 17
The authority heuristic ......................................................................................................... 17
The likeability heuristic ....................................................................................................... 17
The consistency heuristic .................................................................................................... 18
The reciprocity heuristic ..................................................................................................... 19
The scarcity heuristic ............................................................................................................ 19
6. Emotions and influence ........................................................................................... 21
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 21
From general mood to specific emotions ....................................................................... 21
Positive emotions ................................................................................................................... 21
Negative emotions .................................................................................................................. 22
Contempt, disgust and anger .............................................................................................. 24
7. Punishment and reward ......................................................................................... 25
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 25
Reward, punishment and the brain .................................................................................. 25
Reward versus punishment ................................................................................................ 26
Social punishment and reward .......................................................................................... 27
8. Automatic influences on attitudes and behaviour ......................................... 28
Influence: unconscious versus automatic ...................................................................... 28
Evaluative conditioning ........................................................................................................ 28
Mere exposure effect ............................................................................................................. 28
Priming ....................................................................................................................................... 29
Contrast effect .......................................................................................................................... 30
Smells and music .................................................................................................................... 30
2
, The physical environment ................................................................................................... 31
9. Social norms and social comparison ................................................................... 32
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 32
The development of norms ................................................................................................. 32
Descriptive norms .................................................................................................................. 33
Injunctive norms ..................................................................................................................... 33
The influence of role models .............................................................................................. 35
10. Modification of complex behaviour: From intentions to action.............. 36
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 36
Intervention mapping ........................................................................................................... 36
Implementation intentions ................................................................................................. 37
Ability and behavioural change ......................................................................................... 37
Tailored interventions .......................................................................................................... 38
11. Back to the future.................................................................................................... 39
Influence and ethics ............................................................................................................... 39
Growth and diversity ............................................................................................................. 39
Research: effectiveness and durability ........................................................................... 39
Social media and serious gaming ...................................................................................... 39
3
, 1. Influence: definition, history and a model
Introduction
People influence each other and are influenced by others. The most pervasive
influence comes from public information and advertising. Advertising is calling
attention to something: it’s notifying or warning other people, often by means of
a public medium. Information in many forms is used to accomplish this. Exerting
influence is costly, so it’s important to ask:
• How does influence come about?
• What strategies and techniques are most effective?
• Why are these most effective?
A brief history of influence research
Greek philosophers studied the art of persuasion (Sophists, Plato, Aristotle).
Attitudes
Interest in persuasion spiked during the Industrial Revolution, since more and
more products and services became available. Emphasis in research was first on
linguistics, then on process analysis. Laswell (1948) formulated a model of
communication:
says with
Who in which
what to whom what
| channel
| | effect?
The |
the audience |
source medium
content effect
People (US government) became interested in attitude in influence research.
Hovland started testing hypotheses characteristics of message, source and
recipient (see Ch2). They discovered there is a difference between direct and
indirect impact of messages. They developed a four-step process model of
persuasion, based on their findings concerning attitudinal and behavioural
change:
1. People must pay attention to the information in the message.
2. The message has to be understood.
3. The recipient has to accept the message and change their attitude
accordingly.
4. To influence behaviour permanently, the new attitude must be retained.
4
Theory, research and practice
J. van der Pligt en M. Vliek
Psychology of Media and Communication
Summary by Gina Fialka
,Table of Contents
1. Influence: definition, history and a model ........................................................... 4
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 4
A brief history of influence research .................................................................................. 4
2. Attitudes and behaviour ............................................................................................ 6
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 6
Attitudes, attitude formation and behaviour ................................................................... 6
Reasoned and intuitive attitudes ......................................................................................... 7
Measuring attitudes and behaviour .................................................................................... 8
Factors involved in influence: ............................................................................................ 10
3. Persuasion through argumentation .................................................................... 11
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 11
Argument and persuasion ................................................................................................... 11
Dual-process models of persuasion ................................................................................. 11
Figures of speech as persuasive tools in argumentation .......................................... 12
Value-expectancy models and influence ........................................................................ 13
4. Cognitive heuristics .................................................................................................. 14
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 14
Cognitive heuristics in decision making ......................................................................... 14
The representativeness heuristic ..................................................................................... 14
The availability heuristic ..................................................................................................... 15
Framing effects ........................................................................................................................ 15
The anchoring and adjustment heuristic ....................................................................... 15
The affect heuristic ................................................................................................................ 16
The more-is-better heuristic .............................................................................................. 16
5. Social heuristics ......................................................................................................... 17
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 17
The authority heuristic ......................................................................................................... 17
The likeability heuristic ....................................................................................................... 17
The consistency heuristic .................................................................................................... 18
The reciprocity heuristic ..................................................................................................... 19
The scarcity heuristic ............................................................................................................ 19
6. Emotions and influence ........................................................................................... 21
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 21
From general mood to specific emotions ....................................................................... 21
Positive emotions ................................................................................................................... 21
Negative emotions .................................................................................................................. 22
Contempt, disgust and anger .............................................................................................. 24
7. Punishment and reward ......................................................................................... 25
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 25
Reward, punishment and the brain .................................................................................. 25
Reward versus punishment ................................................................................................ 26
Social punishment and reward .......................................................................................... 27
8. Automatic influences on attitudes and behaviour ......................................... 28
Influence: unconscious versus automatic ...................................................................... 28
Evaluative conditioning ........................................................................................................ 28
Mere exposure effect ............................................................................................................. 28
Priming ....................................................................................................................................... 29
Contrast effect .......................................................................................................................... 30
Smells and music .................................................................................................................... 30
2
, The physical environment ................................................................................................... 31
9. Social norms and social comparison ................................................................... 32
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 32
The development of norms ................................................................................................. 32
Descriptive norms .................................................................................................................. 33
Injunctive norms ..................................................................................................................... 33
The influence of role models .............................................................................................. 35
10. Modification of complex behaviour: From intentions to action.............. 36
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 36
Intervention mapping ........................................................................................................... 36
Implementation intentions ................................................................................................. 37
Ability and behavioural change ......................................................................................... 37
Tailored interventions .......................................................................................................... 38
11. Back to the future.................................................................................................... 39
Influence and ethics ............................................................................................................... 39
Growth and diversity ............................................................................................................. 39
Research: effectiveness and durability ........................................................................... 39
Social media and serious gaming ...................................................................................... 39
3
, 1. Influence: definition, history and a model
Introduction
People influence each other and are influenced by others. The most pervasive
influence comes from public information and advertising. Advertising is calling
attention to something: it’s notifying or warning other people, often by means of
a public medium. Information in many forms is used to accomplish this. Exerting
influence is costly, so it’s important to ask:
• How does influence come about?
• What strategies and techniques are most effective?
• Why are these most effective?
A brief history of influence research
Greek philosophers studied the art of persuasion (Sophists, Plato, Aristotle).
Attitudes
Interest in persuasion spiked during the Industrial Revolution, since more and
more products and services became available. Emphasis in research was first on
linguistics, then on process analysis. Laswell (1948) formulated a model of
communication:
says with
Who in which
what to whom what
| channel
| | effect?
The |
the audience |
source medium
content effect
People (US government) became interested in attitude in influence research.
Hovland started testing hypotheses characteristics of message, source and
recipient (see Ch2). They discovered there is a difference between direct and
indirect impact of messages. They developed a four-step process model of
persuasion, based on their findings concerning attitudinal and behavioural
change:
1. People must pay attention to the information in the message.
2. The message has to be understood.
3. The recipient has to accept the message and change their attitude
accordingly.
4. To influence behaviour permanently, the new attitude must be retained.
4
