Cross-cultural skills summary
Lecture 1: What is culture?
Culture is a unique meaning and information system, shared by a group and
transmitted across generations, that allows the group to meet basic needs of survival,
pursue happiness and well-being, and derive meaning from life (Matsumoto & Juang,
2017).
Culture is also a pair of glasses that we are constantly looking through – a schema to
help us evaluate and organize information.
Psychological research is often based among WEIRD samples (Western, educated,
industrialized, rich and democratic). These participants are not representative for the
whole world. 73% of authors were at American universities, 99% were at Western
universities. 96% of psychological samples come from countries with only 12% of the
world’s population.
How to conceptualize culture?
Culture explains behavior.
For example, Japanese culture is credited for calm recovery. Do they act like that
because it is Japanese to do so?
Hierarchy of interpretations (Poortinga)
1. Cultural values/traits
Do national characteristics explain the behavior?
Look out for stereotyping, be aware of cultural attribution errors
2. Historical/political context
Can the behavior be understood in terms of the wider context?
Acquire information about the pre- and post-migration context
3. Cultural conventions
Can the behavior be understood in terms of conventions?
Ask about possible conventions
4. Other person/Own person (group)
Watch for attribution errors (fundamental error, essentialism)
5. Situation
Obtain more information
How would you react n this situation?
6. Behavior lowest level
Check your assessment of the facts
Take away message:
Always look for an explanation at the lowest possible level in the hierarchy–this is usually
more accurate and forms a better basis for action
Theoretical approaches
Hofstede
o Most cited general framework to classify cultural patterns on the country level.
o Examination of work-related values in employees of IBM during the 1970s
(Hofstede, 1981).
o Four classic dimensions:
Power distance
, The extent to which the members of a society expect and accept
that power in institutions and organizations is distributed
unequally.
Individualism/collectivism
Individualism pertains to societies in which the ties between
individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after himself
or herself and his or her immediate family.
Collectivism as its opposite pertains to societies in which
people from birth onwards are integrated into strong cohesive
in-groups, which throughout people’s lifetime continue to
protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty.
Masculinity/femininity
Femininity: Preference for relationships, modesty, caring for
the weak, and the quality of life.
Masculinity: Preference in society for achievement, heroism,
assertiveness, and material success.
, Uncertainty avoidance
The degree to which the members of a society feel
uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity.
o Later, 2 dimensions added.
Long-term/short-term orientation
Long-term: the world is in flux; preparing for the future is
always needed
Short-term: the world is as it was created; the past provides a
moral compass, adhering to it is morally good
Indulgence
Indulgent: life is good, value of freedom, acting on impulse,
importance of friendship
Restrained: life is hard, value of duties
Criticism on Hofstede: Minkov, 2017.
o Power distance seems to be a part of individualism/collectivism.
o Uncertainty avoidance not reliable (does not predict criteria, e.g., job security).
o Masculinity/femininity similarly not reliable.
Markus & Kitayama (1991)
o Independence vs. Interdependence
Lecture 1: What is culture?
Culture is a unique meaning and information system, shared by a group and
transmitted across generations, that allows the group to meet basic needs of survival,
pursue happiness and well-being, and derive meaning from life (Matsumoto & Juang,
2017).
Culture is also a pair of glasses that we are constantly looking through – a schema to
help us evaluate and organize information.
Psychological research is often based among WEIRD samples (Western, educated,
industrialized, rich and democratic). These participants are not representative for the
whole world. 73% of authors were at American universities, 99% were at Western
universities. 96% of psychological samples come from countries with only 12% of the
world’s population.
How to conceptualize culture?
Culture explains behavior.
For example, Japanese culture is credited for calm recovery. Do they act like that
because it is Japanese to do so?
Hierarchy of interpretations (Poortinga)
1. Cultural values/traits
Do national characteristics explain the behavior?
Look out for stereotyping, be aware of cultural attribution errors
2. Historical/political context
Can the behavior be understood in terms of the wider context?
Acquire information about the pre- and post-migration context
3. Cultural conventions
Can the behavior be understood in terms of conventions?
Ask about possible conventions
4. Other person/Own person (group)
Watch for attribution errors (fundamental error, essentialism)
5. Situation
Obtain more information
How would you react n this situation?
6. Behavior lowest level
Check your assessment of the facts
Take away message:
Always look for an explanation at the lowest possible level in the hierarchy–this is usually
more accurate and forms a better basis for action
Theoretical approaches
Hofstede
o Most cited general framework to classify cultural patterns on the country level.
o Examination of work-related values in employees of IBM during the 1970s
(Hofstede, 1981).
o Four classic dimensions:
Power distance
, The extent to which the members of a society expect and accept
that power in institutions and organizations is distributed
unequally.
Individualism/collectivism
Individualism pertains to societies in which the ties between
individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after himself
or herself and his or her immediate family.
Collectivism as its opposite pertains to societies in which
people from birth onwards are integrated into strong cohesive
in-groups, which throughout people’s lifetime continue to
protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty.
Masculinity/femininity
Femininity: Preference for relationships, modesty, caring for
the weak, and the quality of life.
Masculinity: Preference in society for achievement, heroism,
assertiveness, and material success.
, Uncertainty avoidance
The degree to which the members of a society feel
uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity.
o Later, 2 dimensions added.
Long-term/short-term orientation
Long-term: the world is in flux; preparing for the future is
always needed
Short-term: the world is as it was created; the past provides a
moral compass, adhering to it is morally good
Indulgence
Indulgent: life is good, value of freedom, acting on impulse,
importance of friendship
Restrained: life is hard, value of duties
Criticism on Hofstede: Minkov, 2017.
o Power distance seems to be a part of individualism/collectivism.
o Uncertainty avoidance not reliable (does not predict criteria, e.g., job security).
o Masculinity/femininity similarly not reliable.
Markus & Kitayama (1991)
o Independence vs. Interdependence
