AQA A level psychology - Approaches key terms already passed

AQA A level psychology - Approaches key terms already passed psychology the scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those functions affecting behaviour in a given context science a means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. the aim is to discover general laws. introspection the fist systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations. behaviourist approach a way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning classical conditioning learning by association. occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together - an unconditioned stimulus and a new neutral stimulus. the neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by the unlearned stimulus alone. operant conditioning a form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. possible consequences of behaviour include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment. reinforcement a consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated. can be positive or negative social learning theory a way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combined learning theory with the role of cognitive factors imitation copying the behaviour of others identification when an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model modelling from the observer's perspective, imitating the behaviour of a role model. from the role models perspective, the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer vicarious reinforcement reinforcement which is not directly experienced by occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour. this is a key factor in imitation mediational processes cognitive factors that influence learning and come between stimulus and response cognitive approach the term 'cognitive' has come to mean 'mental processes'. so this approach is focus on how our mental processes affect behaviour. internal mental processes private operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response schema a mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing. they are developed from experience inference the process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour cognitive neuroscience the scientific study of biological structures that underpin cognitive processes biological approach a perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural function genes they make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical features of an organism and psychological features. transmitted from parents to offspring biological structure an arrangement or organisation of parts to form an organ, system or living things neurochemistry relating to chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning genotype the particular set of genes that a person possesses phenotype the characteristics of individual determined by both gees and the environment evolution the changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successful generations monozygotic identical twins from on zygote dizygotic non identical twins formed from two zygotes psychodynamic approach a perspective that describes the difference forces, most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour the unconscious the part of the mind that we are unaware of but which continues to direct much of our behaviour the conscious the part of the mind we are aware of the pre conscious thoughts that occur just out of conscious awareness id entirely unconscious, made up of selfish aggressive instincts that demand immediate gratification ego the reality check that balances the conflicting demands of the id and the superego superego the moralistic part of our personality which represents the ideal self how we ought to be defence mechanism unconcious strategies that the ego uses to manage the conflict between the id and the superego repression highly emotional and unpleasant thoughts are buried deep in the unconscious mind denial a refusal to accept the reality of a situation displacement a strong emotion is transferred from its target onto a neutral or safer object or person psychosexual stages according to freud, five developmental stages that a children pass through. at most stages there is a specific conflict, the outcome of which determines future development fixation if a conflict is experienced during development through one of the psychosexual stages of development a fixation will affect the personality psychoanalysis therapy which employs a range of techniques designed to access the unconscious, such as hypnosis and dream analysis falsification not open to empirical testing any the possibility of being disproved humanistic psychology an approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each persons capacity for self determination free will the notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces self actualisation the desire to grow psychologically and fulfil ones potential. becoming what you are capable of hierarchy of needs a five levelled hierarchical sequence in which basic needs must be satisfied before higher psychological needs can be achieved self the ideas and values that characterise i and me and includes perception and valuing of what i am and what i can do ideal self the self you wish to be real self who you actually are congruence the aim of Rogerian therapy; when the self concept and ideal self are broadly accord or match conditions of worth when a parent places limits on the boundaries on their love of their children unconditional positive regard total acceptance received from another person