Sociale omgeving en gedrag – Summary
Chapter 1: Introduction to applied social psychology
Introduction: social problems, human cognition, and behavior
Social psychology is the scientific field that seeks to understand the nature and causes of human
behavior and thought in social situations, and the motivations, cognitions, and emotions related to
such behaviors. In order to design effective solutions for social problems, we…:
- Have to understand which behavior causes the problem
- Have to examine which factors influence the behavior
- Have to understand which intervention techniques are available to change behavior
Definitions of applied social psychology
Applied social psychology is the systematic application of social psychological constructs, principles,
theories, intervention techniques, research methods, and research findings to understand or
ameliorate social problems.
A construct refers to a clearly defined individual characteristic that is generally latent and thus not
directly observable. A principle is a statement of how a psychological process works. Principles
describe basic processes by which humans think, feel, and act. Examples:
- Foot-in-the-door technique: making a small request, followed by a larger related request
- Cognitive dissonance: uncomfortable tension from having two conflicting thoughts
- Availability heuristic: tendency to judge the frequency of an event by the ease with which
relevant instances come to mind
A theory is an integrated set of principles that describes, explains, and predicts observed events.
Basic social psychologists tend to follow a deductive approach: start with a theory, and examine to
what extent the theory may be helpful in understanding various types of behavior. Applied social
psychologists follow an inductive approach. They start from a specific social problem, and examine
to what extent various theories may help to understand this problem.
Correspondence between basic and applied social psychology
Developing and testing theories
Results of applied research may necessitate adjustment of theories, or the development of new
theories.
Basic and applied social psychology as science
The term science refers to reliance on scientific methods and guidance by the core values of science.
Scientific methods are those methods that depend on empirical tests, that is, the use of systematic
observations to evaluate propositions and ideas. Four values to qualify a study as scientific:
- Accuracy: gather and evaluate information that is as carefully examined, precise, and as
error free as possible
- Objectivity: minimize bias in obtaining and evaluating data
, - Skepticism: accept findings as accurate only to the extent that they have been verified over
and again by the data
- Open-mindedness: accept evidence as valid, even if the evidence is not consistent with
one’s initial, and perhaps strongly held, beliefs and theories
Some ethical precepts specifically concern social scientists, and refer to the way research should be
conducted. Some important precepts are: deception, informed consent, invasion of privacy and
debriefing.
Goals of science
Basic and applied social psychologists are motivated by the four main goals of science:
1. Description refers to identifying and specifying the details and nature of a phenomenon
2. Prediction enhances understanding of phenomena
3. Causality means that we find out whether changes in one factor cause changes in another
4. Explanation implies the need to establish why a phenomenon or relationship occurs
Causes of behavior and cognitions
Individual factors refer to intrapersonal characteristics and processes. Differences may exist in
cognitive processes, emotions, and in the extent to which people engage in behavior.
Social factors pertain to the effect of the opinions and actions of other people on our behavior,
thoughts, and feelings. We are often strongly affected by the actions and thoughts of other people,
and by social situations.
Situational factors reflect contextual factors that may affect our behavior and thoughts. The physical
world may strongly affect our behavior, thoughts, and feelings.
Cultural factors refer to cultural values of norms that affect cognitions, feelings, and behavior.
Culture may be defined as the system of shared meanings, perceptions, and beliefs held by people
belonging to a particular group.
Biological factors pertain to the effect of biological processes and genetic factors on our behavior,
feelings, and thoughts. Evolutionary psychology suggests that we possess a large number of evolved
psychological mechanisms that help us to survive and reproduce.
Features of applied social psychology
The role of personal values
Applied social psychologists (ASP) should be aware of their personal values, and the way their values
may affect their work. In some cases, their values may conflict with the values of other groups
involved.
The use of multiple theories, intervention techniques, and research methods
Problems may be better understood when studied from different theoretical perspectives. Some
techniques may be more appropriate in a situation than others. Intervention techniques are more
effective to the extent to which they specifically address those factors that contribute substantially
to the particular problem behavior.
Interdisciplinary research
Many societal problems are rooted in a wide range of factors, which are not solely social-
psychological by nature. In many cases, knowledge from a wide range of other disciplines should be
taken into account. Different disciplines may use similar concepts to describe different phenomena.
,Field settings
ASPs are more likely to conduct research in field settings (natural settings). High in external validity.
Less easy to infer causal relationships.
Social utility
It is assumed that social problems may be reduced by changing people’s attitudes, norms, values,
perceptions, behaviors, and lifestyles. This is the core subject of the field of social psychology.
- Consider which type of behavior is most problematic
- Which results may we expect per euro/dollar/pound invested?
- Consider the effect size
Roles of applied social psychologists
Researcher
- Study the antecedents of behavior that causes social problems
- Evaluate the effects of interventions on cognitions and behavior
- Evaluate the effects of interventions on social problems and individual QoL
Consultant
ASPs assist individuals, groups, organizations, or communities to resolve particular problems they
are facing. Improve clients’ performance, appearance, or QoL.
Policy advisor
They can advise policy makers on ways to change cognitions and behavior in order to improve or
solve social problems of different kinds.
Chapter 2: The use of theory in applied social psychology
Introduction
Three functions of theories in ASP (USE)
The role of theory in the field of applied social psychology
Theories are useful in three ways:
- They explain
- They suggest ways to change problematic behavior
- Theories can become practical and guide evaluation
, If the social psychologist is following an action research model, the cycle would begin again with the
researcher reanalyzing the situation, refining the intervention, implementing it and then reassessing
the situation and the relevance of the theories used.
Theories, principles, and constructs
Rational choice theory maintains that individuals are motivated to promote their self-interest. this
theory contains constructs, most notably costs and rewards. Also, several principles.
Social-psychological theories
Social thinking Social influence Social relationships
Focus of theories To describe how To describe how the To describe what
people appraise social environment makes people relate
themselves and their changes an to each other
social world. individual’s thoughts, positively and
feelings and/or negatively.
behaviors.
Types of theories Attributions, cognitive Obedience, Ingroup/outgroup
dissonance theory, compliance, biases, stereotypes,
attitudes, theory of elaboration likelihood prejudice,
planned behavior. model. discrimination contact
theory, prosocial
behavior.
Application of theories To design tools or To design To design
interventions that interventions that interventions that
describe, predict, or promote specific improve social
change social behaviors. relationships.
appraisals.
Social thinking
Social cognition draws heavily on the content and methods of cognitive psychology. An early social
cognitive theory was attribution theory: people explain their behavior (internally or externally). The
fundamental attribution error is attributing your own poor behavior to external causes, and poor
behavior of others to internal causes.
Cognitive dissonance theory suggests that it is psychologically uncomfortable when people’s
attitudes, beliefs, and behavior about themselves or their surroundings are not congruent.
A final theory is the theory of planned behavior (TBP). It states that the best predictor of an
individual’s behavior is their intention to act, which in turn is caused by three constructs:
- Attitude
- Subjective norm: a person’s beliefs about what other who are important to them think they
should do
- Perceived behavioral control: a person’s beliefs about the extent to which the behavior is
achievable
Social influence
Imitation is the replicating of another’s actions. It appears to be an innate tendency. Conformity
occurs when a person changes their behavior to be consistent with real or imagined social
expectations. Theories here seek to define the circumstances under which individuals are likely to
change their behavior to fit in with a group. Compliance results from a plainly stated request. When
behavioral change is in response to an explicit demand, we turn to theories of obedience.
The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) states that there are different routes to persuasion. Central
and peripheral route.
Chapter 1: Introduction to applied social psychology
Introduction: social problems, human cognition, and behavior
Social psychology is the scientific field that seeks to understand the nature and causes of human
behavior and thought in social situations, and the motivations, cognitions, and emotions related to
such behaviors. In order to design effective solutions for social problems, we…:
- Have to understand which behavior causes the problem
- Have to examine which factors influence the behavior
- Have to understand which intervention techniques are available to change behavior
Definitions of applied social psychology
Applied social psychology is the systematic application of social psychological constructs, principles,
theories, intervention techniques, research methods, and research findings to understand or
ameliorate social problems.
A construct refers to a clearly defined individual characteristic that is generally latent and thus not
directly observable. A principle is a statement of how a psychological process works. Principles
describe basic processes by which humans think, feel, and act. Examples:
- Foot-in-the-door technique: making a small request, followed by a larger related request
- Cognitive dissonance: uncomfortable tension from having two conflicting thoughts
- Availability heuristic: tendency to judge the frequency of an event by the ease with which
relevant instances come to mind
A theory is an integrated set of principles that describes, explains, and predicts observed events.
Basic social psychologists tend to follow a deductive approach: start with a theory, and examine to
what extent the theory may be helpful in understanding various types of behavior. Applied social
psychologists follow an inductive approach. They start from a specific social problem, and examine
to what extent various theories may help to understand this problem.
Correspondence between basic and applied social psychology
Developing and testing theories
Results of applied research may necessitate adjustment of theories, or the development of new
theories.
Basic and applied social psychology as science
The term science refers to reliance on scientific methods and guidance by the core values of science.
Scientific methods are those methods that depend on empirical tests, that is, the use of systematic
observations to evaluate propositions and ideas. Four values to qualify a study as scientific:
- Accuracy: gather and evaluate information that is as carefully examined, precise, and as
error free as possible
- Objectivity: minimize bias in obtaining and evaluating data
, - Skepticism: accept findings as accurate only to the extent that they have been verified over
and again by the data
- Open-mindedness: accept evidence as valid, even if the evidence is not consistent with
one’s initial, and perhaps strongly held, beliefs and theories
Some ethical precepts specifically concern social scientists, and refer to the way research should be
conducted. Some important precepts are: deception, informed consent, invasion of privacy and
debriefing.
Goals of science
Basic and applied social psychologists are motivated by the four main goals of science:
1. Description refers to identifying and specifying the details and nature of a phenomenon
2. Prediction enhances understanding of phenomena
3. Causality means that we find out whether changes in one factor cause changes in another
4. Explanation implies the need to establish why a phenomenon or relationship occurs
Causes of behavior and cognitions
Individual factors refer to intrapersonal characteristics and processes. Differences may exist in
cognitive processes, emotions, and in the extent to which people engage in behavior.
Social factors pertain to the effect of the opinions and actions of other people on our behavior,
thoughts, and feelings. We are often strongly affected by the actions and thoughts of other people,
and by social situations.
Situational factors reflect contextual factors that may affect our behavior and thoughts. The physical
world may strongly affect our behavior, thoughts, and feelings.
Cultural factors refer to cultural values of norms that affect cognitions, feelings, and behavior.
Culture may be defined as the system of shared meanings, perceptions, and beliefs held by people
belonging to a particular group.
Biological factors pertain to the effect of biological processes and genetic factors on our behavior,
feelings, and thoughts. Evolutionary psychology suggests that we possess a large number of evolved
psychological mechanisms that help us to survive and reproduce.
Features of applied social psychology
The role of personal values
Applied social psychologists (ASP) should be aware of their personal values, and the way their values
may affect their work. In some cases, their values may conflict with the values of other groups
involved.
The use of multiple theories, intervention techniques, and research methods
Problems may be better understood when studied from different theoretical perspectives. Some
techniques may be more appropriate in a situation than others. Intervention techniques are more
effective to the extent to which they specifically address those factors that contribute substantially
to the particular problem behavior.
Interdisciplinary research
Many societal problems are rooted in a wide range of factors, which are not solely social-
psychological by nature. In many cases, knowledge from a wide range of other disciplines should be
taken into account. Different disciplines may use similar concepts to describe different phenomena.
,Field settings
ASPs are more likely to conduct research in field settings (natural settings). High in external validity.
Less easy to infer causal relationships.
Social utility
It is assumed that social problems may be reduced by changing people’s attitudes, norms, values,
perceptions, behaviors, and lifestyles. This is the core subject of the field of social psychology.
- Consider which type of behavior is most problematic
- Which results may we expect per euro/dollar/pound invested?
- Consider the effect size
Roles of applied social psychologists
Researcher
- Study the antecedents of behavior that causes social problems
- Evaluate the effects of interventions on cognitions and behavior
- Evaluate the effects of interventions on social problems and individual QoL
Consultant
ASPs assist individuals, groups, organizations, or communities to resolve particular problems they
are facing. Improve clients’ performance, appearance, or QoL.
Policy advisor
They can advise policy makers on ways to change cognitions and behavior in order to improve or
solve social problems of different kinds.
Chapter 2: The use of theory in applied social psychology
Introduction
Three functions of theories in ASP (USE)
The role of theory in the field of applied social psychology
Theories are useful in three ways:
- They explain
- They suggest ways to change problematic behavior
- Theories can become practical and guide evaluation
, If the social psychologist is following an action research model, the cycle would begin again with the
researcher reanalyzing the situation, refining the intervention, implementing it and then reassessing
the situation and the relevance of the theories used.
Theories, principles, and constructs
Rational choice theory maintains that individuals are motivated to promote their self-interest. this
theory contains constructs, most notably costs and rewards. Also, several principles.
Social-psychological theories
Social thinking Social influence Social relationships
Focus of theories To describe how To describe how the To describe what
people appraise social environment makes people relate
themselves and their changes an to each other
social world. individual’s thoughts, positively and
feelings and/or negatively.
behaviors.
Types of theories Attributions, cognitive Obedience, Ingroup/outgroup
dissonance theory, compliance, biases, stereotypes,
attitudes, theory of elaboration likelihood prejudice,
planned behavior. model. discrimination contact
theory, prosocial
behavior.
Application of theories To design tools or To design To design
interventions that interventions that interventions that
describe, predict, or promote specific improve social
change social behaviors. relationships.
appraisals.
Social thinking
Social cognition draws heavily on the content and methods of cognitive psychology. An early social
cognitive theory was attribution theory: people explain their behavior (internally or externally). The
fundamental attribution error is attributing your own poor behavior to external causes, and poor
behavior of others to internal causes.
Cognitive dissonance theory suggests that it is psychologically uncomfortable when people’s
attitudes, beliefs, and behavior about themselves or their surroundings are not congruent.
A final theory is the theory of planned behavior (TBP). It states that the best predictor of an
individual’s behavior is their intention to act, which in turn is caused by three constructs:
- Attitude
- Subjective norm: a person’s beliefs about what other who are important to them think they
should do
- Perceived behavioral control: a person’s beliefs about the extent to which the behavior is
achievable
Social influence
Imitation is the replicating of another’s actions. It appears to be an innate tendency. Conformity
occurs when a person changes their behavior to be consistent with real or imagined social
expectations. Theories here seek to define the circumstances under which individuals are likely to
change their behavior to fit in with a group. Compliance results from a plainly stated request. When
behavioral change is in response to an explicit demand, we turn to theories of obedience.
The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) states that there are different routes to persuasion. Central
and peripheral route.
