Patho NR283-Exam 1 Study Guide
Chapter 1
Atrophy:
▪ Decrease in the size of cells
▪ Results in reduced tissue mass
▪ Common causes: reduced use of the tissue (in cast), insufficient nutrition, decrease neurologic
or hormonal stimulation, aging
Hypertrophy:
▪ Increase in cell size
▪ Results in enlarged tissue mass; ex) enlarged heart w/ heart failure
▪ Causes: additional work by the tissue( lifting weights), excessive hormonal stimulation
Hyperplasia:
▪ Increased number of cells
▪ Results in enlarged tissue mass ex) uterus in pregnancy
▪ Causes: compensatory mechanism to meet increased demand, or pathologic when there is
a hormonal imbalance
Metaplasia:
▪ Mature cell type is replaced by a different mature cell type
▪ Adaptive mechanism that provided more resistance tissue
Dysplasia:
▪ Cells vary in size and shape within a tissue
▪ Chronic irritation infection, or it may be a precancerous change
Anaplasia:
▪ Undifferentiated cells with variable nuclear and cell structures
▪ Characteristic of cancer
Neoplasia:
▪ New growth
▪ Commonly called tumor
Causes of cell death:
1. Ischemia: Most common cause of cell death; Decreased supply of oxygenated blood to a tissue
or organ due to circulation obstruction
2. Hypoxia: Reduced oxygen in tissues/blood; Result insufficient oxygen and reduced cellular
metabolism
3. Physical damage: extreme heat/ cold
4. Mechanical damage: pressure, tumor, obstruction
5. Chemical toxins: exogenous-pollution endogenous-free radicals
6. Microorganisms/pathogens -bacteria/viruses
Stages
1. Initial: start; loss of function; reversible
, 2. Irreversible: Cell death
Aptosis:
▪ Normal; refers to programmed cell death
Necrosis:
▪ Group of cells die due to cell injury
Gangrene:
▪ Area of necrotic tissue that has been invaded by bacteria
Chapter 20
Differentiation:
▪ Each cell type differentiates/matures and carries out specific functions
▪ The structure reflects the function of the tissue
Benign:
▪ Have tissue name plus the suffix –oma
▪ Differentiated cells that reproduce at a higher rate but still normal; slower growth;
▪ Do NOT spread
▪ Localized
▪ Encapsulated
▪ Tissue damage to adjacent cells from pressure
▪ Rare systemic manifestations
Malignant:
▪ Have the tissue name plus the suffix –carcinoma
▪ Sarcomas: tumor of the connective tissue... Often malignant
▪ Undifferentiated, nonfunctional cells
▪ Rapid reproduction
▪ Infiltrate and spread to surrounding tissue
▪ No Capsule
▪ Spread to different sites
▪ Normal cell destruction
▪ Systemic manifestation present
Cancer risk
factors: 1. Environment
2. Genetics
3. Infections
4. Chemicals/toxins
5. Biological factors
6. Age
7. Diet
8. Hormones (^ estrogen levels= breast cancer)
, Warning Signs of
1. Unusual bleeding or discharge anywhere in the body
Cancer:
2. Change in bowel or bladder habits
3. Change in wart or mole
4. A sore that does not heal
5. Unexplained weight loss
6. Anemia, low hemoglobin and persistent fatigue
7. Persistent cough or hoarseness without reason
8. A solid lump; in the breast/testes, or anywhere in the body
Local Effects of Tumors:
▪ Pain:
o May be absent until very late stages
o Occurs when tumor is well advanced
o Severity depends on the type of tumor
▪ Obstruction:
o Occurs when tumor compresses a duct or passageway
o Blood supply or lymphatic flow may be restricted
o Digestive tract
o Airflow in bronchi
▪ Tissue Necrosis/Ulceration:
o May lead to bleeding or infection around the tumor (ischemia necrosis)
Systemic Effects of Malignant Tumors:
▪ Weight loss and cache (weakness and wasting):
o Anorexia, fatigue, pain, stress
o Increased demands on the body from tumor cells
▪ Anemia:
o Caused by blood loss at tumor site
o Nutritional deficits may reduce hemoglobin synthesis
▪ Severe fatigue:
o Caused by inflammatory changes, cachexia and anemia
o Stress of treatment schedule
o Psychological factors
▪ Infections:
o Often occur as resistance declines
▪ Bleeding:
o Tumor cells may erode the blood vessels/platelets
▪ Paraneoplastic syndrome:
o Associated with certain tumor types
o Tumor cells release substances that affect neurological function and may have
hormonal effects
Spread:
1. Invasion:
• Local spread 3. Seeding:
• Tumor cells grow into adjacent tissues • Spread of cancer cells in body fluids
• Example: uterine carcinoma invades the vagina or along membrane; usually in body
2. Metastasis: cavities
• Spread to distant sites
• Via blood or lymph or other body fluids
Chapter 1
Atrophy:
▪ Decrease in the size of cells
▪ Results in reduced tissue mass
▪ Common causes: reduced use of the tissue (in cast), insufficient nutrition, decrease neurologic
or hormonal stimulation, aging
Hypertrophy:
▪ Increase in cell size
▪ Results in enlarged tissue mass; ex) enlarged heart w/ heart failure
▪ Causes: additional work by the tissue( lifting weights), excessive hormonal stimulation
Hyperplasia:
▪ Increased number of cells
▪ Results in enlarged tissue mass ex) uterus in pregnancy
▪ Causes: compensatory mechanism to meet increased demand, or pathologic when there is
a hormonal imbalance
Metaplasia:
▪ Mature cell type is replaced by a different mature cell type
▪ Adaptive mechanism that provided more resistance tissue
Dysplasia:
▪ Cells vary in size and shape within a tissue
▪ Chronic irritation infection, or it may be a precancerous change
Anaplasia:
▪ Undifferentiated cells with variable nuclear and cell structures
▪ Characteristic of cancer
Neoplasia:
▪ New growth
▪ Commonly called tumor
Causes of cell death:
1. Ischemia: Most common cause of cell death; Decreased supply of oxygenated blood to a tissue
or organ due to circulation obstruction
2. Hypoxia: Reduced oxygen in tissues/blood; Result insufficient oxygen and reduced cellular
metabolism
3. Physical damage: extreme heat/ cold
4. Mechanical damage: pressure, tumor, obstruction
5. Chemical toxins: exogenous-pollution endogenous-free radicals
6. Microorganisms/pathogens -bacteria/viruses
Stages
1. Initial: start; loss of function; reversible
, 2. Irreversible: Cell death
Aptosis:
▪ Normal; refers to programmed cell death
Necrosis:
▪ Group of cells die due to cell injury
Gangrene:
▪ Area of necrotic tissue that has been invaded by bacteria
Chapter 20
Differentiation:
▪ Each cell type differentiates/matures and carries out specific functions
▪ The structure reflects the function of the tissue
Benign:
▪ Have tissue name plus the suffix –oma
▪ Differentiated cells that reproduce at a higher rate but still normal; slower growth;
▪ Do NOT spread
▪ Localized
▪ Encapsulated
▪ Tissue damage to adjacent cells from pressure
▪ Rare systemic manifestations
Malignant:
▪ Have the tissue name plus the suffix –carcinoma
▪ Sarcomas: tumor of the connective tissue... Often malignant
▪ Undifferentiated, nonfunctional cells
▪ Rapid reproduction
▪ Infiltrate and spread to surrounding tissue
▪ No Capsule
▪ Spread to different sites
▪ Normal cell destruction
▪ Systemic manifestation present
Cancer risk
factors: 1. Environment
2. Genetics
3. Infections
4. Chemicals/toxins
5. Biological factors
6. Age
7. Diet
8. Hormones (^ estrogen levels= breast cancer)
, Warning Signs of
1. Unusual bleeding or discharge anywhere in the body
Cancer:
2. Change in bowel or bladder habits
3. Change in wart or mole
4. A sore that does not heal
5. Unexplained weight loss
6. Anemia, low hemoglobin and persistent fatigue
7. Persistent cough or hoarseness without reason
8. A solid lump; in the breast/testes, or anywhere in the body
Local Effects of Tumors:
▪ Pain:
o May be absent until very late stages
o Occurs when tumor is well advanced
o Severity depends on the type of tumor
▪ Obstruction:
o Occurs when tumor compresses a duct or passageway
o Blood supply or lymphatic flow may be restricted
o Digestive tract
o Airflow in bronchi
▪ Tissue Necrosis/Ulceration:
o May lead to bleeding or infection around the tumor (ischemia necrosis)
Systemic Effects of Malignant Tumors:
▪ Weight loss and cache (weakness and wasting):
o Anorexia, fatigue, pain, stress
o Increased demands on the body from tumor cells
▪ Anemia:
o Caused by blood loss at tumor site
o Nutritional deficits may reduce hemoglobin synthesis
▪ Severe fatigue:
o Caused by inflammatory changes, cachexia and anemia
o Stress of treatment schedule
o Psychological factors
▪ Infections:
o Often occur as resistance declines
▪ Bleeding:
o Tumor cells may erode the blood vessels/platelets
▪ Paraneoplastic syndrome:
o Associated with certain tumor types
o Tumor cells release substances that affect neurological function and may have
hormonal effects
Spread:
1. Invasion:
• Local spread 3. Seeding:
• Tumor cells grow into adjacent tissues • Spread of cancer cells in body fluids
• Example: uterine carcinoma invades the vagina or along membrane; usually in body
2. Metastasis: cavities
• Spread to distant sites
• Via blood or lymph or other body fluids
