PLS1501 EXAM PACK 2025

October/November 2020 PLS 1501 Introduction to Western Philosophy 100 Marks Duration: 24 Hours This paper consists of 2 pages including this cover page. Instructions: Your exam consists of 3 QUESTIONS. SECTION A which consists of ONE QUESTION is COMPULSORY and counts 50 marks You can choose to answer ANY TWO of the FOUR QUESTIONS under SECTION B All 3 answers must be submitted as part of A SINGLE word file/ text DOCUMENT. Please remember to download the plagiarism declaration available on MyUNISA and include a completed version in your final submission. Please consult your 203 tutorial letter on MyUNISA for submission instructions. Good luck and all of the best. Want to earn $103 per month? S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material S - The study-notes marketplace SECTION A [50 marks] The question in this section is compulsory. 1. Write an essay {maximum 1000 words} in which in light of your studies this semester, provide a detailed answer to the following interrelated questions (which must form the main sections of your essay). (i) What is Western philosophy? (ii) What value, if any, can it in your opinion contribute to South African society? [in answering this question, you are encouraged to make recourse to etymology, branches, history and historical figures in philosophy] SECTION B [50 marks] Choose any 2 questions in this section. 2. Please discuss Aristotle’s doctrine of the four causes applying it to the an illustrated visualisation of the microscopic coronavirus as seen in fig 1 . hereunder. [In your answer you must first set out Aristotle’s doctrine of the four causes and use Fig 1 as your example/ illustration].{maximum 500 words} [25 marks] Figure 1 1 1. Discuss in detail Plato’s allegory of the cave and its philosophical (epistemological and political) significance {maximum 500 words} [25 marks] 2. Critically discuss Aquinas’ 5 proofs for the existence of God {maximum 500 words} [25marks] 3. Discuss St Augustine’s Epistemology with a special reference to the role of God within it. {maximum 500 words} [25 marks] TOTAL [100 MARKS] 1 See S - The study-notes marketplace Downloaded by: miketervis | Distribution of this document is illegal S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: LIBRARY | Want to earn $103 per month? S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material S - The study-notes marketplace SECTION A [50 marks] The question in this section is compulsory. 1. Write an essay {maximum 1000 words} in which in light of your studies this semester, provide a detailed answer to the following interrelated questions (which must form the main sections of your essay). (i) What is Western philosophy? (ii) What value, if any, can it in your opinion contribute to South African society? [in answering this question, you are encouraged to discuss etymology(of ‘philosophy’), branches, history and historical figures in philosophy] Introduction Philosophy is defined as the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, its etymology comes from the Greek word ‘philosophia’. Philo meaning ‘love of’ and Sophia meaning ‘knowledge’. Western philosophy refers specifically to the philosophic pursuits of the western world that emerged out Greece. The earliest philosophical movement being the Presocratics in 624 BC. What distinguishes philosophy from other fields of study is its subject matter and methodology. Western philosophy can be broken down into three main branches Metaphysics, epistemology and ethics. The study of existence is often referred to as "metaphysics" we examine what nature of ‘stuff’ is. While the study of knowledge is called "epistemology". Epistemology examines belief, opinion and objective knowledge. What do we know and how do we know it. The study of values can be divided into two main branches: morality ("ethics") and beauty ("aesthetics"). The Aims Of Philosophy 1. What is knowledge? This refers to the following kinds of issues and questions: How can we know anything, Is there absolutes, universal truths. it can help people understand whether their closely-held derive from objective or subjective information. In a counry with such a history of division, “unlearning” or atleast questioning what we think we is essential. 2. How should we conduct ourselves? What exactly is nature of the human condition. What is morality and what constitutes "the good." When we examine the history of South Africa we must What is a valued life and valued way of being? 3. How should we govern ourselves? This study source was downloaded by from CourseH on :23:17 GMT -05:00 This study resource was shared via CourseH S - The study-notes marketplace Downloaded by: miketervis | Distribution of this document is illegal S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: LIBRARY | Want to earn $103 per month? S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material S - The study-notes marketplace This merges questions one and two into a practical and social angle. That is, given our state of knowledge and given our values for what constitutes the good, what should our social and political organizations look like? Philosophy today What can western philosophy contribute to a modern South African society. Rationality, Humanism, Unfortunately, the golden age of philosophy may be over and recently academia has instead shifted into the age of empirical science (what do the data say?) and shallow economic utilitarianism There is much emerging evidence that our shallow, unreflective systems of justification are threatening our very existence. As such, I hope there is a quick and profound return to reflecting on these questions with depth and sophistication. Conclusion Plato said that thinking is "the mind in conversation with itself," and core modes of selfinterrogation Roman thinkers and philosophers grappled with many of the same political and social issues we find ourselves facing today. The Classical period not only lay the foundations of modern democracy it also offers answers in an ever changing political world This study source was downloaded by from CourseH on :23:17 GMT -05:00 This study resource was shared via CourseH S - The study-notes marketplace Downloaded by: miketervis | Distribution of this document is illegal S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: LIBRARY | Want to earn $103 per month? S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material S - The study-notes marketplace SECTION B [50 marks] Question 2 Please discuss Aristotle’s doctrine of the four causes applying it to the an illustrated visualisation of the microscopic coronavirus as seen in fig 1 . hereunder. [In your answer you must first set out Aristotle’s doctrine of the four causes and use Fig 1 as your example/ illustration].{maximum 500 words} [25 marks] There are, according to Aristotle, four general kinds of cause which may operate in determinative way on anything, or be given in answer to the question of what something is, or why something is the case. Aristotle states “we do not have knowledge of a thing until we have grasped its why, that is to say, its cause” Before we must understand what Aristotle means when he refers to the “cause”. "Cause" is the traditional translation of the Greek nearest to ordinary language is "explanation". The four cause are, the formal cause The material cause answers the question what does it consist of? The efficient cause answers the question how does something happen? The formal cause answers the question what are its characteristics? The final cause answers the question why is it here? Or what is its purpose? -Material cause:. (i) the genetic material, i.e. long molecules of DNA or RNA that encode the structure of the proteins by which the virus acts; (ii) a protein coat, the capsid, which surrounds and protects the genetic material; and in some cases (iii) an outside envelope of lipids. -Formal cause: Viruses are microscopic parasites, generally much smaller than bacteria. They lack the capacity to thrive and reproduce outside of a host body. -Efficient cause: This newly discovered virus closely related to bat coronaviruses, pangolin coronaviruses, The virus that causes COVID-19 is mainly transmitted through droplets generated when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or exhales. -Final cause: A cannot reproduce by itself. for the corona virus is to live on within the body of the infected person as a host and. can direct the cell machinery to produce more viruses therefor replicating. A change or movement for the sake of a thing to be what it is. This study source was downloaded by from CourseH on :23:17 GMT -05:00 This study resource was shared via CourseH S - The study-notes marketplace Downloaded by: miketervis | Distribution of this document is illegal S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: LIBRARY | Want to earn $103 per month? S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material S - The study-notes marketplace Question 3 Critically discuss Plato’s doctrine knowledge is anamnesis {maximum 500 words} [25 marks] The idea is that humans possess innate knowledge (perhaps acquired before birth) and that learning consists of rediscovering that knowledge from within. Meno is a Socratic dialogue scripted by Plato. It appears to attempt to determine the definition of virtue, meaning virtue in general such as justice or temperance It is written in the Socratic dialectical style and Meno is reduced to confusion. In response to Meno's paradox, however, Socrates introduces positive ideas: the immortality of the soul, the theory of knowledge as recollection, which Socrates demonstrates by posing a mathematical puzzle to one of Meno's slaves, the method of hypothesis, and, in the final lines, the distinction between knowledge and true belief. The idea that we are born possessing all knowledge and our realization of that knowledge is contingent on our discovery of it, This doctrine implies that nothing is ever learned, it is simply recalled or remembered. This goes against what I consider to be the fundamental basis of Philosophy, It ignores the scientific method. Philosophy may be defined as "the study of existence, knowledge, and values". This study source was downloaded by from CourseH on :23:17 GMT -05:00 This study resource was shared via CourseH S - The study-notes marketplace Downloaded by: miketervis | Distribution of this document is illegal S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: LIBRARY | Want to earn $103 per month? S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material S - The study-notes marketplace ACADEMIC INTEGRITY DECLARATION 1. I understand what academic dishonesty entails and am aware of UNISA’s policies in this regard. 2. I declare that this assignment is my own, original work. Where I have used someone else’s work I have indicated this by using the prescribed style of referencing. Every contribution to, and quotation in, this assignment from the work or works of other people has been referenced according to this style. 3. I have not allowed, and will not allow, anyone to copy my work with the intention of passing it off as his or her own work. 4. I did not make use of another student’s work and submitted it as my own. NAME: Ntombifuthi Matsebula STUDENT NUMBER: MODULE CODE: SIGNATURE: NM DATE: 06 July 2020 This study source was downloaded by from CourseH on :23:17 GMT -05:00 This study resource was shared via CourseH Powered by TCPDF () S - The study-notes marketplace Downloaded by: miketervis | Distribution of this document is illegal S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: LIBRARY | Want to earn $103 per month? S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material S - The study-notes marketplace PLS1501/202/2/2021 3 Dear Student 1 INTRODUCTION This tutorial letter discusses assignment 02 and offers you guidelines for the final examination. 2 GENERAL COMMENTS ON ASSIGNMENT 02 Question: Critically Discuss St Thomas Aquinas’ Five Proofs for the existence of God [100 marks]. (Hint: A Critical Discussion in addition to consisting of a recapitulation of the arguments of Aquinas must also include your own independent assessment of his reasoning and whether you think it is sound) Discussion Thomas Aquinas () is considered one of the greatest philosopher-theologian of the Middle Ages. He set out to provide proof for the existence of God based on what he considered to be empirical facts about the world. The first three arguments are often referred to as the Cosmological argument because they each begin from the fact that there is a cosmos or a world whose existence needs to be accounted for. His aim was to offer clear and compelling arguments for the existence of God; the perfect creator of the universe. Aquinas therefore set out to provide philosophical arguments to demonstrate the existence of God using rational argumentation rather than simply relying on faith. These five proofs for the existence of God appear in his famous work the Summa Theologica. We describe each of the arguments below. a). Argument from Motion It is certain and agreed on the basis of our experiences of the world that some things in this world are in motion. Since whatever is in motion is moved by something other than itself, then either the chain of movers go back infinitely far (which is impossible) or else there is a first, unmoved, mover, an original source of motion- and this is God. Objection: If the principle that everything that is in motion is moved by something else is indeed true then it should hold true for everything including the so-called prime mover himself. The decision to postulate the unmoved mover goes against the very principle on which this argument is premised. You can also object to this argument by appealing to the findings of modern physics concerning motion. b). Argument from efficient causality In the world that we perceive around us there are a series of causes. In each ordered series of causes, the first item is the cause of the next item, and this in turn is the cause of the next. An efficient cause is an agent, a maker, something that brings something else into being. No matter how many caused causes there are in a series, there must be an uncaused cause (a first cause) that is responsible for the chain of causality that runs through the whole series. To this cause, “everyone gives the name of God.” S - The study-notes marketplace Downloaded by: miketervis | Distribution of this document is illegal S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: LIBRARY | Want to earn $103 per month? S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material S - The study-notes marketplace 4 Objection: You can begin by raising issues with the idea of cause and effect itself- as the empiricist philosopher Hume () has tried to show. Even if the argument were to be valid that there is indeed a first cause, it does not necessarily follow that such a cause is God. It could be any other being. One can also raise the objection that even God himself would also need a cause to explain his being there. This series of causes can go back to infinity. The other weakness is that in this chain of cause and effect we can never be sure through our own knowledge that we have now reached at the first cause. Equally important is the objection that why should there be one first cause instead of many. You can also draw from findings in modern physics in objecting to this argument. c). Argument from possibility and necessity Aquinas begins by drawing a distinction between possible beings and necessary beings. In nature we find that it is possible for things to be and not to be. Such things are possible or contingent because they do not always exist. So if there was a time when nothing existed, then nothing could start to be and even now there would be nothing in existence. But since our experience clearly shows us that things do exist, this must mean that not all beings are merely possible. Aquinas concludes from this that there must be something in the world whose existence is necessary and this everyone calls God. Objection: If there is no being that owes its existence to itself then that principle must also apply to God himself. If God is taken as the necessary cause for everything then the objection raised against the first and second arguments also apply here. This argument is also criticised as an attempt to define God into existence similar to the objections raised against the Ontological argument as you may already notice. d). Argument from Degrees of perfection In our experience we come across some things which are more or less good, or true or noble than others and so on. But ‘more’ and ‘less’ are terms that are used to describe how a thing is close to what is greatest of its kind. Hence there is something that is truest, and best, and noblest and consequently greatest in being. From this Aquinas concludes that “there must be something which is to all beings the cause of their being, goodness, and every other perfection; and this we call God”. Objection: This is considered perhaps as the weakest of all his arguments. There is a problem with the assumed yardstick to measure things. The qualities he uses in trying to illustrate the logic of his reasoning are also subjective and not absolute. e). Argument from the governance of the world We see things that lack intelligence such as natural bodies operating so as to achieve a goal or end. They always strive to reach their goal and to pursue their end as if they have knowledge. But things that do not have knowledge cannot act as if they have a purpose unless they are guided to do so by something that has knowledge and intelligence. This intelligent being or governor who directs all unintelligent natural things to act purposefully is God. Objection: the assumption made of a designer does not necessarily hold. Things may be following natural processes and the theories of science and evolution suggest something that S - The study-notes marketplace Downloaded by: miketervis | Distribution of this document is illegal S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: LIBRARY | Want to earn $103 per month? S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material S - The study-notes marketplace PLS1501/202/2/2021 5 may be more plausible than postulating one intelligent designer. Like the teleological argument, there is still no reason why we should arrive at one designer rather than a whole team of designers. Note on the critique of the arguments The major question you should have in mind after reading all the five ways provided by Aquinas to prove God’s existence is whether the facts he put forward cannot be explained with reference to something else or some other factors other than God. If that is possible then the postulation of God may not be necessary. For each of these arguments you must provide critiques or objections where you demonstrate the inherent logical problems in each of the proofs provided. This you can do immediately after presenting each argument or you can do so at the end of the essay by providing a narrative that points to the problems of the arguments as a whole. By studying section 4.5 in your Study Guide it should be clear that there is a range of objections/critiques against these five proofs for the existence of God. These are discussed individually in the section. For that reason, I will not repeat them here. You simply have to turn to the relevant sections of the Study guide. The hind included in brackets after the question requires you to begin to practice being a philosopher. In other words, it requires you to provide your own critical evaluation of the arguments and to pronounce whether you find them plausible or not and at the same time provide a reason or two. It is important to remember that we expect you to provide this critical analysis as part of your individualised reflection on what you have read. 3. THE EXAMINATION In order to prepare yourself well for the final examination, please take note of the following: A timetable will be send to you with all the details pertaining to your final examination. There will be a three hour take-home examination consisting of two sections A and B. Section A is short descriptions and conceptual analysis and Section B is a long essay. You must keep your answers precise and to the point, it is unnecessary for example to provide the biographical history of Plato in a question about his epistemology, focus exclusively on the content of the question asked. Plagiarism Please do not be tempted to Copy. This being a take home exam, you must understand that as soon as you submit, your script will automatically be put through a plagiarism detection system (Turnitin). It is therefore crucial that where you decide to use material from a source, proper methods of referencing must be used in the body of the essay itself including name of author and year, then quotation marks and page if direct words are taken from a source. The full reference must then appear in the bibliography provided at the end of the essay. Any source consulted must therefore be referenced properly including the Study Guide because this was authored by someone. Familiarise yourself with Tutorial Letter 301 which provides guidelines on intellectual integrity and referencing in Philosophy. It is also crucial that you visit the following website which speaks about Plagiarism so that you know what it is and also what not to do S - The study-notes marketplace Downloaded by: miketervis | Distribution of this document is illegal S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: LIBRARY | Want to earn $103 per month? S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material S - The study-notes marketplace 6 Revision You will notice that the Study Guide is divided into Study Units each of which deals with a particular topic. Upon finishing one Study Unit, you should be in a good position to tackle the self-test questions included in your Study Guide. We have also included copies of previous examination question papers on myUnisa to assist you during revision. Please follow the discussion forums on the myUnisa page for this Module. Selecting questions Take your time to read the Instructions and the entire exam question paper before deciding which questions to tackle. It may help to write down some of the main points you think should appear in each answer to measure your understanding of the question before you begin answering. Bear in mind that you will also need time to proofread your essay before final submission. Conclusion We are available all the time to assist you via email and on the discussion forum with any subject related questions and discussions. All the best. Prof P Mungwini S - The study-notes marketplace Downloaded by: miketervis | Distribution of this document is illegal S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: LIBRARY | Want to earn $103 per month? S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material S - The study-notes marketplace PLS 1501/202/2/2020 3 1 INTRODUCTION Dear Student this tutorial letter contains information for your second assignment and your final examination this semester. . 2 GENERAL COMMENTS ON ASSIGNMENT 2 In your assignment you were asked to discuss Aquinas’ 5 proofs for the existence of God. Hereunder we provide full feedback of all the aspects of the proofs you were required to demonstrate grasp over as well as some of the critique you could have given of these “proofs”. Finally we discuss briefly the various aspects of the rubric which was used in order to mark your assignments. Critically Discuss St Thomas Aquinas’ Five Proofs for the existence of God [100marks] ( Hint : A Critical Discussion in addition to consisting of a recapitulation of the arguments of Aquinas must also include your own independent assessment of his reasoning and whether you think it is sound) Introduction That God exists is, of course, matter of faith; but it is also, Aquinas holds, a proposition capable of proof by natural reason. He offers, in all, five proofs for God's existence (Stumpf & Abel 2002:112-114). In each, Aquinas starts with some particular occurrence (for example, some fact of experience, like motion) and argues that, but for such-and-such an attribute of the divine nature, this occurrence would never have occurred. Thus Aquinas's proofs have a causal form the changes that we observe occurring can only have God for their cause. We shall next consider each of these proofs in turn, together with certain clarifying and critical comments. 1 Proof from motion Aquinas argues that ``whatever is in motion must be put in motion by another''. Any motion must ultimately go back to a first mover a mover that imparts motion to other things, but is not itself in motion (compare study unit 2.10.3.2) for if it were in motion it would need a mover. Since there evidently are things in motion, there must be ``a first mover, moved by no other; and this everyone understands to be God'' (Stumpf & Abel 2002:113). S - The study-notes marketplace Downloaded by: miketervis | Distribution of this document is illegal S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: LIBRARY | Want to earn $103 per month? S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material S - The study-notes marketplace PLS 1501/202/2/2020 4 2 Proof from efficient causality Aquinas's second proof is based on the notion of efficient causality. An efficient cause is an agent, a maker, something that brings something else into being. Just as there cannot be an infinite series of movers (proof from motion), so there cannot be an infinite series of efficient causes. There must be a first efficient cause, which brings about effects but is not, itself, an effect. No matter how many caused causes there are in a series, there must be an uncaused cause (a first cause) that is responsible for the chain of causality that runs through the whole series. To this cause, ``everyone gives the name of God'' (Stumpf & Abel 2002:113). 3 Argument from possibility and necessity The third way to prove God's existence begins with Aquinas drawing a distinction between possible beings and necessary beings. In nature we find that it is possible for things to be and not to be. Such things are possible or contingent because they do not always exist. For example, there was a time when a tree did not exist; it exists, and finally it goes out of existence. For this reason, something that is possible which cannot-be, in fact ``at one time is not''. But if there was a time when nothing existed, then nothing could start to be, and even now there would be nothing in existence, ``because that which does not exist begins to exist only through something already existing'' (Stumpf & Abel 2002: 113). But since our experience clearly shows us that things do exist, this must mean that not all beings are merely possible. Aquinas (Stumpf & Abel 2002:113) concludes from this that there must be something the existence of which is necessary ...This all men speak of as God. Critical Evaluation of the first 3 proofs To these three proofs it is possible to reply that no one doubts that motion occurs, that events have causes, that there is an order in the world, and that there are degrees of temperature, and so on. Aquinas's position is that the only way to account for such facts is through the hypothesis that God exists and that these are His effects. With respect to his first proof, the question we can ask Aquinas is whether motion can be accounted for without the assumption of a first unmoved mover. Many people, undoubtedly, will initially agree with Aquinas that the whole world process must have begun by an initial movement. But both ancient materialists (such as those who proposed the concept of atoms as basic constituents of matter) and modern ones have denied both the intelligibility and the need for a first cause. Their position is that, no matter how far back in time one goes, one can always find a cause for any specific movement. But this cause is itself some other movement of the same kind. As long as there is an infinite series of motions, any particular motion can be explained by other motions. Hence the need for a first cause to explain the occurrence of motion does not arise. The question, however, is whether such an infinite series of motions (or causes) is conceivable. Aquinas denies that it is. In reply, the series of positive numbers 1, 2, 3, and so on could be mentioned. It is clear that this series does not have a last term, since after any number n, however large; there is another number n + 1. Similarly, it could be maintained that, before any time t, however remote in the past, there was an earlier time t-1, in which motion was occurring. If there is no greatest positive number, why need there be any first motion? Why, as a matter of fact, if the notion of a greatest positive number is really a contradiction in terms, is not the same true of the notion of a first, unmoved mover? Aquinas begins by arguing that every event must have a cause, and since he denies that an infinite series is possible, he concludes that there must be a first cause. S - The study-notes marketplace Downloaded by: miketervis | Distribution of this document is illegal S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: LIBRARY | Want to earn $103 per month? S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material S - The study-notes marketplace PLS 1501/202/2/2020 5 But since a first cause is uncaused, his conclusion contradicts his original contention that every event has a cause. But this analysis of Aquinas's position is over simple. He agrees with the natural scientists that it is impossible to explain the totality of events in the same way we explain particular events. But he differs from the scientists in that he insists that some other kind of account of the totality of events can be given. Whereas scientists are chiefly concerned with explaining particular events and are totally uninterested in the totality of events (if they even find such a concept intelligible), Aquinas has the kind of mind that is deeply interested in such totalities. Aquinas saw that, if any account of such an idea is to be possible, such an account must be in terms other than those in which we explain parts. His name for these other terms was ``God''. The basic difference in outlook between Aquinas and the scientists reflects the gulf between the religious and the scientific outlook a radical parting of the ways. This often happens in philosophical inquiry, since the function of philosophical analysis is not so much to find the answers as it is to make clear what the alternative answers are! 4 Proof from the degrees of perfection In our experience we find that some beings are more and some less good, true, and noble. But these and other ways of comparing things are possible only because things resemble, in their different ways, something that is the maximum. In other words, there must be something that is truest, noblest, and best. Aquinas argues that the maximum in any category (genus) is the cause of everything in that category. From this Aquinas concludes that ``there must be something which is to all beings the cause of their being, goodness, and every other perfection; and this we call God'' (Stumpf & Abel 2002:114). Aquinas's proof from the degrees of perfection also appeals to an empirical fact the fact that differences of degree exist. He argues that such differences can be accounted for only on the hypothesis of an objective standard. It is meaningless to talk about ``more'' or ``less'' except in terms of a norm from which these are deviations, and this norm, this absolute criterion, is God. But although we cannot talk about ``more'' or ``less'' without some sort of standard, it does not follow that this standard must be absolutely objective. The argument only proves the existence of an absolutely objective criterion if we assume an absolutely objective ``more'' and an absolutely objective ``less'', and this is precisely the point at issue. In other words, Aquinas's argument is based on the unproven assumption he then claims to prove. This criticism can also be stated in terms of the distinction that has been drawn between ``accounts inside the system'' and ``accounts of the system as a whole''. Comparisons inside the system are meaningful, but conclusions drawn from them are always relative to the area of the system included in the account. If we want to arrive at a more definitive comparison we can take a larger part of the system into account. Since the system is indefinitely large, it is always possible for us to get a more definitive comparison than the one we have at the moment, however definitive this comparison may be. That is, we can always find another criterion for checking our present criterion of ``more'' and``less'', and all these criteria are within the system as a whole. Thus, for ordinary purposes of checking our conclusions up to any degree of precision we choose, we do not need an absolute criterion at all. On the other hand, if we want an absolutely objective criterion of ``more'' or ``less'', we must go outside the system to a consideration of totality and, in doing so, we are then committed to giving a different kind of account. S - The study-notes marketplace Downloaded by: miketervis | Distribution of this document is illegal S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: LIBRARY | Want to earn $103 per month? S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material S - The study-notes marketplace PLS 1501/202/2/2020 6 5 Proof from the governance of the world Aquinas's final proof is based on the premise that, if something acts in order to achieve a goal, there must be a being with the intelligence to know what the goal is and how to attain it. So while a natural body such as a tree is not itself intelligent, its goal-seeking activities must be caused by an intelligent governor. This governor who directs all unintelligent natural things to act purposefully is God. The proof from the governance of the world is sometimes referred to as the proof from teleology, that is, the purposefulness of all existence. What was said about the proof from the degrees of perfection above can also be said about Aquinas's fifth proof from the governance of the world. Arguments that are valid about governance inside the system are not relevant to the governance of the system as a whole. But here a prior point must be dealt with. Does the argument about governance really hold even with respect to events inside the system? The ends to which material things appear to be aiming may, in fact, be only projections of our human hopes and fears. If this is so, it is unnecessary to assume ``the existence of an intelligence which directs them to their end'', that is, God. Consider, for instance, the temperature range of this planet. Temperatures very much colder or very much hotter than those that occur on earth would make life as we know it impossible. Aquinas could have argued that, since we cannot suppose that the temperature itself has willed to adjust itself to our needs, we must conclude that it was directed to this good end by a divine intelligence. But this conclusion does not follow. First, this temperature range is ``best'' from our point of view merely because we have an interest in the continuation of the human race a matter in which we are, after all, somewhat prejudiced witnesses! And, second, we know that all sorts of temperature ranges exist on other planets. This planet happens to be one that permits life like ours. What seems to be design may, in fact, be coincidence? To take an example: the card game of bridge. If we were dealt a straight suit of spades on the first and only occasion anybody anywhere ever played bridge, we might regard this ``good thing'' as evidence of purpose on somebody's part. But when we know that millions upon millions hands of bridge are being played all round the world, it should not surprise us that this combination is sometimes dealt. That it happens to be dealt to us is obviously the ``best'' for us, but we do not attribute it to a kindly card-playing providence who wants us to win rather than other bridge players! Conclusion To summarise this long discussion, it can be said that if Aquinas's proofs appear to be valid, he has so far established the existence of (1) moved mover who is (2) the first cause of all that is, (3) an absolutely necessary being, (4) the final criterion of value, and (5) the governor and designer of the universe. But are they valid? This depends on whether the empirical facts to which they appeal can be accounted for in some way other than by tracing their causes back to God's activity. And to this question, as we have seen, it is impossible to give a simple answer. Whether or not we think the empirical facts can be accounted for in some other way will depend on how we define ``account'' and whether we are satisfied with the kind of account that can be given of parts inside systems. S - The study-notes marketplace Downloaded by: miketervis | Distribution of this document is illegal S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: LIBRARY | Want to earn $103 per month? S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material S - The study-notes marketplace PLS1501/201/2/2018 3 1 INTRODUCTION Dear Student this tutorial letter contains information for your first assignment. As this was your first assignment the reading required for it was at a reasonable minimum and the questions general enough in scope that they could have been approached in various ways even with limited study of the entire study material. It is so however that those of you who may have studied the material more thoroughly would have a richer content with which to provide answers. In the following section we have included an actual example drawn from a student who submitted her assignment early. We have attached the standard rubric used to mark each question underneath the question in order to show you our considerations systematically. In your actual assignment only the mark appears but the attached rubric is attached to give you a detailed breakdown of how we arrive at the final number. Of a total of 20 marks for each question 5 (comprising 25%) marks were awarded for the structure, grammar and coherence of your answers. The largest portion of marks 12 (comprising 60%) was for the factual content and quality of the answer. The final 3 marks (comprising a total 15%) was awarded for references to the sources. 2 GENERAL COMMENTS ON ASSIGNMENT 1 2.1 What in your understanding is Western Philosophy? (You may refer to philosophers, problems and branches in your answer) [20 marks] Western philosophy is the study of the philosophical thought of the western world. The word philosophy means “love of wisdom” and Western philosophy is but one among many philosophies. Western philosophers are divided into different schools, depending on their specific field of study. These fields are metaphysics, epistemology, ethics and political philosophy. Logic may be included in all of the branches of philosophy. The field of philosophy is not easily defined and for that reason all philosophies including eastern, Indian and African should be studied as all fields borrow thoughts and ideas from each other. A holistic approach should always be used when studying philosophy. The main difference between Eastern and Western philosophy lies in the fact that faith and belief form an integral part of eastern philosophy whereas in western philosophy this is not the case. The ancient Greek thinkers posed metaphysical questions which the eastern thinkers had already dealt with through religious thought and they then moved on to moral and political reasoning. The fathers of Western philosophy were the ancient Greeks; Socrates, Plato and Aristotle who formed the basis of modern philosophical thought processes as we know it today. Western philosophy has progressed through various ages in man's development, from the ancient Greeks, Medieval times, the Renaissance, the age of Revolution, into the modern world and contemporary philosophy. Throughout the ages man has constantly debated and questioned philosophical thought and will continue to do so. Mark Awarded : 15/20 This study source was downloaded by from CourseH on :04:09 GMT -05:00 This study resource was shared via CourseH S - The study-notes marketplace Downloaded by: miketervis | Distribution of this document is illegal S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: LIBRARY | Want to earn $103 per month? S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material S - The study-notes marketplace 4 Study pages 7-15 for a general discussion on the nature of Western philosophy Aspect /Criterion Value % Structure of Essay(Coherence, language, spelling grammar, cogency) Although this is philosophy and not an English course, the use of language is vitally important in the construction of philosophical argumentation. Grammar is a representation of the structure of thought and as such must be taken seriously Total 5 Student’s score 5 *although this isn’t an essay, the student’s sentences are structured in a grammatically correct fashion. She has made good use of punctuation, and the thoughts or ideas flow logically and systematically from one sentence to the other Substantive content of answer and sources (eg dictionaries, encyclopaedias of philosophy, textbooks, study guide Total 12 Student’s Score 10 *she has made mention of the regionality or westerness of Western philosophy, recognising the field as one philosophy amongst others. She specifically mentions Eastern philosophy and counterposes the two. She also discussed the different branches of Western philosophy as well as its different historical periods. Bibliography / references Total 3 Student’s Score 0 The student here scores 0 since she has mentioned none of the sources she drew the content material from, either inside the text as she borrowed and synthesised the ideas or at the end of the section or assignment as a complete list. TABLE 1.1 (related to question 2.1) This study source was downloaded by from CourseH on :04:09 GMT -05:00 This study resource was shared via CourseH S - The study-notes marketplace Downloaded by: miketervis | Distribution of this document is illegal S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: LIBRARY | Want to earn $103 per month? S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material S - The study-notes marketplace PLS1501/201/2/2018 5 2.2 From your understanding what is Ethics and what does it deal with? (You may refer to examples and content in your study material and other sources) [20 marks] Ethics are set of moral principles dealing with what is right and wrong. They help in establishment of our moral conduct as are gathered by norms and values of the community or organisation. They assist in problem solving, in dilemma where it is not easy to take a decision. They make life easier and a world a better and safe place to stay as people are expected to act reasonable and responsible, example no one is allowed to kill a person, with or without reason being because such act is illegal. Though it differs in other cultural societies such as a documentary I once watched, incident took place in Pakistan where a young girl got shot by his uncle and dad because she got married to a guy the family does not approve, fortunately she survive the bullet. It is clear that every community is gathered by their norms and values and they are not the same with that of the other society or community. Therefore is good that every society to have its own ethics. The western ethical theory consists of various traditions, the Greek, Judeo-Christian, modern tradition and non-consequentialist/deontological ethics with different theories based on their beliefs and on what is right or wrong. According to the Greek tradition, the highest good is to have the appropriate politician institution such as law system, economic system and many others to strengthen their ethics,” From Greek perspective, ethics and politics are inseparable’’ Department of philosophy, practical and systemic theology (2014;92) unlike Aristotle, he believes that happiness is the highest good because good life is in question , that how does one lives good and is all in human happiness. The Judaeo-Christian traditional ethics is all about being righteous before God , as God is the central figure when one is living by Christianity is the one who confirm to the normative value, that’s good in the eyes of the lord , it what should be done on earth and to live upon. Meanwhile the modern tradition is about benefits and being satisfied, as a human you have to do what will bring happiness and pleasure over the pain. Where else an action to be right it does not have to be determine by the consequences but it should be a right thing to be done, example euthanasia it does not matter if is legal , taking somebody life is wrong irrespective of their condition no matter how much pain they feel according to non-consequentiality or deontological ethics. Mark Awarded : 15/20 Study pages 92-95 of your tutorial letter for a comprehensive discussion of the nature of ethical theory This study source was downloaded by from CourseH on :04:09 GMT -05:00 This study resource was shared via CourseH S - The study-notes marketplace Downloaded by: miketervis | Distribution of this document is illegal S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: LIBRARY | Want to earn $103 per month? S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material S - The study-notes marketplace 6 Aspect /Criterion Value % Structure of Text (Coherence, language, spelling grammar, cogency) Total 5 Student’s Total 5 Perfect (see table 1.1) Substantive content of answer and sources (eg dictionaries, encyclopaedias of philosophy, textbooks, study guide Referencing of sources + Total 12 Student’s Total 10 Located Ethics as a branch, discussed its subcategories, described its overall scope of subject and gave an example of a particular Western philosopher’s ideas on ethics . * Didn’t distinguish between normative and descriptive ethics, or between nonconsequentialist (or deontological ethics) and consequentialist ethics Bibliography / references Total 3 Student’s Total 0 no references in text or list TABLE 1.2 (related to question 2.2) This study source was downloaded by from CourseH on :04:09 GMT -05:00 This study resource was shared via CourseH S - The study-notes marketplace Downloaded by: miketervis | Distribution of this document is illegal S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: LIBRARY | Want to earn $103 per month? S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material S - The study-notes marketplace PLS1501/201/2/2018 7 2.3 From your understanding what is Political Philosophy and what does it deal with? (You may refer to examples and content in your study material and other sources) [20 marks] Leo Strauss (1959:10) indicates that the aim of political philosophy is ‘mankinds greatest objectives, freedom and government or empire.’ Therefore, political philosophy is a branch of philosophy that uses a philosophical approach that takes into account the nature of man, and utilising it to establish the state and its people. Political philosophy uses both aspects of sociology and political science and arrives at normative questions about the nature of political authority, liberty and man as a social and political being. One of the biggest controversies in politics is whether the position of power should lay with the people or the authority. Political philosophy began in Greece, basing itself around the idea that man is a social‐political animal, and how it would be possible to encompass mans uniqueness in a just and harmonious form of state. Plato explored the establishment of the state based on justice and three foundations the state and their corresponding human needs. Plato’s Myth as a means of Persuasion holds testament to this hierarchy. Plato also suggests that instead of brutal force, latent socializing power of religious mythology would achieve this order. Aristotle’s two prevailing ideas of the state is that the state is a community and that it is the highest of all communities, upholding the idea that the state is an inevitable occurrence. He also holds political stability and common interest in high regard. Political philosophy draws on the need for authority and direction whilst taking human pursuits into account, ultimately achieving harmony amongst communities and life as a whole. Total 17/20 Study Pages 119 -124 for a basic discussion on the nature of political philosophy and its central concerns This study source was downloaded by from CourseH on :04:09 GMT -05:00 This study resource was shared via CourseH S - The study-notes marketplace Downloaded by: miketervis | Distribution of this document is illegal S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material Downloaded by: LIBRARY | Want to earn $103 per month? S - The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Study Material S - The study-notes marketplace PLS1501/201/2/2017 3 INTRODUCTION Dear Student, as this was your first assignment the reading required for it was at a reasonable minimum and the questions general enough in scope that they could have been approached in various ways even with limited study of the entire study material. It is so however that those of you who may have studied the material more thoroughly would have a richer content with which to provide answers. In the following section we have included an actual example drawn from a student who submitted her assignment early. We have attached the standard rubric used to mark each question underneath the question in order to show you our considerations systematically. In your actual assignment only the mark appears but the attached rubric is attached to give you a detailed breakdown of how we arrive at the final number. Of a total of 20 marks for each question 5 (comprising 25%) marks were awarded for the structure, grammar and coherence of your answers. The largest portion of marks 12 (comprising 60%) was for the factual content and quality of the answer. The final 3 marks (comprising a total 15%) was awarded for references to the sources. 1 GENERAL COMMENTS ON ASSIGNMENT 01 1.1 What in your understanding is Western Philosophy? (You may refer to philosophers, problems and branches in your answer) [20 marks] Western philosophy is the study of the philosophical thought of the western world. The word philosophy means “love of wisdom” and Western philosophy is but one among many philosophies. Western philosophers are divided into different schools, depending on their specific field of study. These fields are metaphysics, epistemology, ethics and political philosophy. Logic may be included in all of the branches of philosophy. The field of philosophy is not easily defined and for that reason all philosophies including eastern, Indian and African should be studied as all fields borrow thoughts and ideas from each other. A holistic approach should always be used when studying philosophy. The main difference between Eastern and Western philosophy lies in the fact that faith and belief form an integral part of eastern philosophy whereas in western philosophy this is not the case. The ancient Greek thinkers posed metaphysical questions which the eastern thinkers had already dealt with through religious thought and they then moved on to moral and political reasoning. The fathers of Western philosophy were the ancient Greeks; Socrates, Plato and Aristotle who formed the basis of modern philosophical thought processes as we know it today. Western philosophy has progressed through various ages in man's development, from the ancient Greeks, Medieval times, the Renaissance, the age of Revolution, into the modern world and contemporary philosophy. Throughout the ages man has const