Summary BIO 251 FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE LATEST UPDATE 2023

BIO 251 FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE LATEST UPDATE 2023. Characteristics of Living Things o Growth Homeostasis o Made of Cells Metabolism o Need for food/energy/water Reproduction o Respiration Responsive to stimuli o Differentiation Movement • Levels of Organization o Chemical level: Combination of atoms to form molecules. o Cellular level: Combination of organic molecules. o Tissue level: Combination of cells of the same type, history, and physiology. o Organ level: Combination of tissues of differing types to carry out a particular function. • Feedback Loops BIOS 251 Final Study Guide • Anatomy: Study of Structure • Physiology: Study of Function • Noninvasive Diagnostics Techniques o Examination o Ausculation o Palpation o Percussion • Anatomical Position o Stand erect, arms at the side with palms facing forward (thumbs pointing away from the body), feet flat on the floor BIOS 251 Final Study Guide • Regional Names • Directional Terms BIOS 251 Final Study Guide • Planes and Sectioning • Body Cavities BIOS 251 Final Study Guide • Serous Membrane Examples • Abdominal Quadrants/Regions BIOS 251 Final Study Guide Chapter 02 Chemical Level of Organization • Mattering: Anything that takes up Space and Mass • Components of Atoms o Protons- positive charge o Electrons- negative charge o Neutrons- neutral Charge • Reading of Periodic Table • Electrons arrange in patterns called orbitals that prevent them from repelling each other. o Valence electrons are in the outer shell and are responsible for bonding. • Types of Bonding o Ionic Bonding ▪ One atom (cation) gives up its electrons to another (anion). ▪ Occurs when one atom is more negative than another. ▪ Most likely to occur with elements that are on opposite sides of the periodic table. o Covalent Bonding ▪ Atoms share their electrons. ▪ Nonpolar covalent: the atoms share their electrons evenly. BIOS 251 Final Study Guide ▪ Polar covalent: the atoms share their electrons unevenly ▪ Double bond: occurs when two elements share two pairs of electrons. ▪ Triple bond: occurs when two elements share three pairs of electrons. o Hydrogen Bonding ▪ Bond that can be readily broken that occurs between highly polar molecules. ▪ This form of bonding is integral to many of the properties of water. • Properties of Water o High heat capacity- amount of energy to raise substance to a certain temp. o High heat of evaporation- Converting 1 g of the hottest water to a gas requires an input of 540 calories of energy, allows sweating to cool us. o Universal Solvent ▪ Hydrophilic: water loving ▪ Hydrophobic: water repelling • Types of Reactions o Dehydration reaction- allows for synthesis of biomolecules by removing water. o Hydrolysis reaction- allows for breakdown of biomolecules by adding water. • Acids and Bases o Acids ▪ A substance that breaks into [H+] ions in an aqueous solution. ▪ Have a pH value from 0 - 7 ▪ Lower pH value indicates a stronger acid. o Bases ▪ A substance that breaks into [OH-] ions in an aqueous solution. ▪ Have a pH value from 7 - 14 ▪ Lower pH value indicates a stronger base. • Carbohydrates o Ready energy o Energy storage o Structure o Backbone of nucleic acids • Lipids o Triglycerides- provide protection, insulation, and energy ▪ Saturated fatty acids: have no double bonds between the carbon atoms and contain as many hydrogen atoms as they can hold. ▪ Unsaturated fatty acids: contain double bonds in the carbon chain which reduces the number of hydrogen atoms and may cause “kinks” in the chain. o Phospholipids: Membrane Components BIOS 251 Final Study Guide ▪ Phospholipids contain two fatty acid chains and a polar phosphate group connected to a glycerol. ▪ Phospholipids have hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails. o Steroids: Four Fused Rings ▪ Steroids: lipids with a skeleton of four fused carbon rings. ▪ Cholesterol: the precursor molecule to several steroids. • Protein Functions o Metabolism o Transport o Regulation o Support o Defense o Movement • Nucleic Acids BIOS 251 Final Study Guide o ATP: Energy storing molecule of the body BIOS 251 Final Study Guide Chapter 03 Chemical Level of Organization • Cellular Components BIOS 251 Final Study Guide • Passive Transport: Osmosis o Osmosis: the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute concentration. o Osmotic pressure: the pressure that develops in a system due to osmosis which allows the uptake of water into the kidneys. o Types of Solution ▪ Isotonic solution: the solute concentration inside and outside the cell are equal. There is no net gain or loss in water. • Tonicity: refers to the strength of the solution. • E.g. A 0.9% solution of the NaCl is known to be isotonic to red blood cells. ▪ Hypotonic solution: solutions that cause cells to swell or burst due to an intake of water. ▪ Hypertonic solution: solutions that cause cells to shrink or shrivel due to a loss of water. • Crenation: refers to red blood cells shriveled by dehydration. BIOS 251 Final Study Guide • Active Transport o Active transport: The movement of molecules across the plasma membrane against the gradient. o Primary Active Transport o Secondary Active Transport ▪ Energy stored (in a hydrogen or sodium concentration gradient) is used to drive other substances against their own concentration gradients BIOS 251 Final Study Guide • The Endomembrane System • Cell Cycle: an orderly set of stages that take place between the time a eukaryotic cell divides and the time the resulting daughter cells also divide. BIOS 251 Final Study Guide • Mitosis vs. Meiosis BIOS 251 Final Study Guide Chapter 04: Tissue Level of Organization • Cell junctions o Tight Junctions- fuse adjacent cells together by forming a belt ▪ Found between epithelial cells of digestive tract. o Adherens (Anchoring) Junctions- attach one cell to another cell or other components and allow for structural cohesion. ▪ Attach to other cells and EC matrix using actin filaments and the proteins cadherin or integrins. ▪ Found between epithelial cells of the digestive tract. BIOS 251 Final Study Guide o Desmosomes- Acts like rivets through the membranes of adjacent cells using intermediate filaments and cadherins. ▪ Found in tissues that undergo significant mechanical stress such as the bladder and cardiac tissue. o Hemidesmosomes- Acts like rivets between the cytoskeleton of one cell to the extracellular matrix via intermediate fibers and integrins.