M I G R A T I O N, I D E N T I T Y A N D S O V E R E I G N T Y
8B.1A: Globalisation has caused extremely significant changes in the global system, changing the pattern of
demand for labour; this has encouraged both rural-urban migration within countries (China) and international
migration between countries (EU-Schengen)
Globalisation has led to a rise in migration, both within countries (internal migration) and between them
(international migration). National core-periphery systems develop and strengthen over time on account of positive
feedback effects as a result of FDI investments and increasing TNC presence. Over time, any initial imbalance
between the two becomes exaggerated due to perpetual outflow of migrants, resources and investment from the
peripheral regions towards the core – the flows being called ‘backwash’ effects. This is encouraged with the
introduction of mechanised agriculture and employment pull factors in urban areas.
Rural-Urban Migration – Internal
China is a key example of how global systems have encouraged rural-urban migration, given the sheer scale of
backwash that has taken place since 1978 (Open-door policy encouraging foreign investment). In almost every
measurable aspect of life, it is better to live in a Chinese city than in a country:
- 34% of rural children die under one year of age compared to 14% in the cities
- 14% of rural children are malnourished compared to only 3% in cities
- Annual household income in rural areas is almost half that of cities
- Ownership of cars, television, compute and white good items like washing machine, refrigerators, clothes
dryers is much less in rural areas
- Employment in rural areas around 288 million compared to 462 million in urban
The government has used internal migration as a tool to unify the nation by shifting the population balance in
provinces which were regarded as security risks. The government has used the hukou system which is used to
control the flow of migrants; the cost of permits varies, with them being more expensive in Beijing where they can
cost up to a year’s average income. This means that the migration is controlled, meaning that China doesn’t have
slums surrounding its major cities like India and South America.
Rural-Urban Migration – International
There are 281 million people living outside their country of origin in 2020. The system of core-periphery can operate
in a more global scale, with Europe being the most popular destination in 2020 with 87 million. This can be partly
due to the fact that within the EU, there is free movement of labour and people after national border controls were
removed in 1995 when the Schengen Agreement was implemented. The EU core region of southern England
(London), northern France (Paris), Belgium (Brussels) and western Germany (Berlin) attracts many migrants from
eastern and southern Europe.
8B.1B: Between 3-4% of the global population live outside their country of birth but this proportion varies greatly
between countries because of different policies relating to international migration and levels of engagement with
the global economy (Singapore or Japan or Australia)
Between 3 to 4% of the global population lives outside their country of birth. This percentage has not changed
greatly over time despite the fact that the number of people migrating internationally has risen – this is because the
total size of the global population has grown too. However there are variations in the proportion of migrants within
different countries due to different policies.
Singapore
Until recently, Singapore was rated as an emerging economy. Now a developed nation, this city-state is unusual in
many respects; among its 5 million people, there is great ethnic diversity due to its British colonial past as a port and
subsequent transformation into the world’s fourth largest financial centre. Many global businesses and institutions
, have located their Asia=Pacific head offices to Singapore, including Credit Suisse and International Baccalaureate,
meaning that many foreign workers and families have relocated there too – with around 2.16 million classified as
immigrants. Singapore’s government has facilitated this movement by having an open immigration policy, allowing
permanent immigrants to reside in the country, allowing so many workers of every skill level that 47% of residents in
2017 were foreign-born.
Japan
Less than 2% of the Japanese population is foreign/foreign-born. Despite the growing status of Japan as a major
global hub from the 1960s onwards, migration rules have made it tough for newcomers to settle permanently.
Nationality law makes the acquisition of Japanese citizenship by resident foreigners an elusive goal (the long-term
citizenship test has a success rate of less than 1%). Japan faces the challenge of an ageing population, with
predictions of there being 3 workers per 2 retirees by 2060 – many people therefore think that Japan should loosen
its grip on immigration.
8B.1C: The pattern of international migration is changing and will continue to change because environmental,
economic and political events affect both the source areas of many migrants and their destinations; this results in
flows of both voluntary economic migrants, refugees and asylum seekers
Environmental Events
Climate change already causes refugees to leave regions where agriculture and their homes are threatened – there
are over 21.5 million people since 2010 who have been displaced by climate change-related disasters. For instance,
many countries within Africa have suffered from increased desertification, drought and consequent famine like
Kenya, Somalia and Sudan, with World Bank stating that 86 million Africans will be forced to migrate due to climate
change. Climate change can significantly intensify rural poverty too, especially since agriculture is the main source of
income and resources.
Economic Events
The global financial crisis of 2007 to 2008 had an unprecedented effect on migration, with dramatic drop of people
moving within the EU (much as a result of 36% drop in free-movement migration within EU). For instance, net
migration from Poland fell to its lowest level since the 1950s. However, opportunities of employment can boost
economic migration; for example when Poland and seven other Eastern European countries joined the EU in 2004,
the UK received many economic migrants, with around 500,000 workers from Eastern Europe in 2006.
Political Events
New conflicts can unexpectedly trigger or diversify global migration flows. For instance, migrants fleeing from
persecution or conflict, like conflict in Afghanistan in 2021 causing 3.5 million displaced refugees, are considered
asylum seekers. They then seek residence in other countries e.g. there were 35,000 asylum application in the UK in
2020.
8B.2A: Most migrants move for work or to re-join family members; there are other significant causes, including
displacement of refugees due to conflict and poverty in their regions of origin (migrants crossing the
Mediterranean)
There are many reasons for migration, with pull and push factors in each:
- Economic migration, looking for work or to follow a particular career path e.g. the UK was one of the 3
countries that allowed new migrants to come and work immediately, meaning that the number of Polish
migrants rose to at least 1 million, especially as 41% of under 25s were unemployed in 2004 in Poland
8B.1A: Globalisation has caused extremely significant changes in the global system, changing the pattern of
demand for labour; this has encouraged both rural-urban migration within countries (China) and international
migration between countries (EU-Schengen)
Globalisation has led to a rise in migration, both within countries (internal migration) and between them
(international migration). National core-periphery systems develop and strengthen over time on account of positive
feedback effects as a result of FDI investments and increasing TNC presence. Over time, any initial imbalance
between the two becomes exaggerated due to perpetual outflow of migrants, resources and investment from the
peripheral regions towards the core – the flows being called ‘backwash’ effects. This is encouraged with the
introduction of mechanised agriculture and employment pull factors in urban areas.
Rural-Urban Migration – Internal
China is a key example of how global systems have encouraged rural-urban migration, given the sheer scale of
backwash that has taken place since 1978 (Open-door policy encouraging foreign investment). In almost every
measurable aspect of life, it is better to live in a Chinese city than in a country:
- 34% of rural children die under one year of age compared to 14% in the cities
- 14% of rural children are malnourished compared to only 3% in cities
- Annual household income in rural areas is almost half that of cities
- Ownership of cars, television, compute and white good items like washing machine, refrigerators, clothes
dryers is much less in rural areas
- Employment in rural areas around 288 million compared to 462 million in urban
The government has used internal migration as a tool to unify the nation by shifting the population balance in
provinces which were regarded as security risks. The government has used the hukou system which is used to
control the flow of migrants; the cost of permits varies, with them being more expensive in Beijing where they can
cost up to a year’s average income. This means that the migration is controlled, meaning that China doesn’t have
slums surrounding its major cities like India and South America.
Rural-Urban Migration – International
There are 281 million people living outside their country of origin in 2020. The system of core-periphery can operate
in a more global scale, with Europe being the most popular destination in 2020 with 87 million. This can be partly
due to the fact that within the EU, there is free movement of labour and people after national border controls were
removed in 1995 when the Schengen Agreement was implemented. The EU core region of southern England
(London), northern France (Paris), Belgium (Brussels) and western Germany (Berlin) attracts many migrants from
eastern and southern Europe.
8B.1B: Between 3-4% of the global population live outside their country of birth but this proportion varies greatly
between countries because of different policies relating to international migration and levels of engagement with
the global economy (Singapore or Japan or Australia)
Between 3 to 4% of the global population lives outside their country of birth. This percentage has not changed
greatly over time despite the fact that the number of people migrating internationally has risen – this is because the
total size of the global population has grown too. However there are variations in the proportion of migrants within
different countries due to different policies.
Singapore
Until recently, Singapore was rated as an emerging economy. Now a developed nation, this city-state is unusual in
many respects; among its 5 million people, there is great ethnic diversity due to its British colonial past as a port and
subsequent transformation into the world’s fourth largest financial centre. Many global businesses and institutions
, have located their Asia=Pacific head offices to Singapore, including Credit Suisse and International Baccalaureate,
meaning that many foreign workers and families have relocated there too – with around 2.16 million classified as
immigrants. Singapore’s government has facilitated this movement by having an open immigration policy, allowing
permanent immigrants to reside in the country, allowing so many workers of every skill level that 47% of residents in
2017 were foreign-born.
Japan
Less than 2% of the Japanese population is foreign/foreign-born. Despite the growing status of Japan as a major
global hub from the 1960s onwards, migration rules have made it tough for newcomers to settle permanently.
Nationality law makes the acquisition of Japanese citizenship by resident foreigners an elusive goal (the long-term
citizenship test has a success rate of less than 1%). Japan faces the challenge of an ageing population, with
predictions of there being 3 workers per 2 retirees by 2060 – many people therefore think that Japan should loosen
its grip on immigration.
8B.1C: The pattern of international migration is changing and will continue to change because environmental,
economic and political events affect both the source areas of many migrants and their destinations; this results in
flows of both voluntary economic migrants, refugees and asylum seekers
Environmental Events
Climate change already causes refugees to leave regions where agriculture and their homes are threatened – there
are over 21.5 million people since 2010 who have been displaced by climate change-related disasters. For instance,
many countries within Africa have suffered from increased desertification, drought and consequent famine like
Kenya, Somalia and Sudan, with World Bank stating that 86 million Africans will be forced to migrate due to climate
change. Climate change can significantly intensify rural poverty too, especially since agriculture is the main source of
income and resources.
Economic Events
The global financial crisis of 2007 to 2008 had an unprecedented effect on migration, with dramatic drop of people
moving within the EU (much as a result of 36% drop in free-movement migration within EU). For instance, net
migration from Poland fell to its lowest level since the 1950s. However, opportunities of employment can boost
economic migration; for example when Poland and seven other Eastern European countries joined the EU in 2004,
the UK received many economic migrants, with around 500,000 workers from Eastern Europe in 2006.
Political Events
New conflicts can unexpectedly trigger or diversify global migration flows. For instance, migrants fleeing from
persecution or conflict, like conflict in Afghanistan in 2021 causing 3.5 million displaced refugees, are considered
asylum seekers. They then seek residence in other countries e.g. there were 35,000 asylum application in the UK in
2020.
8B.2A: Most migrants move for work or to re-join family members; there are other significant causes, including
displacement of refugees due to conflict and poverty in their regions of origin (migrants crossing the
Mediterranean)
There are many reasons for migration, with pull and push factors in each:
- Economic migration, looking for work or to follow a particular career path e.g. the UK was one of the 3
countries that allowed new migrants to come and work immediately, meaning that the number of Polish
migrants rose to at least 1 million, especially as 41% of under 25s were unemployed in 2004 in Poland
