The CN Sociology - Pure Theory
Functionalism
The Organic Analogy - Durkheim
-Society works like a human body - this is known as the organic analogy and society needs to be studied as a
whole.
-The body has vital organs whilst society has vital institutions.
-The organs / institutions work interdependently.
-The organs / institutions have needs that ensure they don’t die out. For example, the socialisation of the
young.
-All the small units of the body / society work as one in order for overall survival and function.
The Glue That Holds Society Together
-The key word in functionalism is ‘function’ - everything benefits society.
-Durkheim believed that society is much more important than any individual and therefore it is everyone’s job to
ensure it functions and survives - without it we would cease to develop and eventually die out.
-It is essential that society (structure) is based on a value consensus:
-Parsons = in order to ensure social order people must share the same culture. By sharing the same norms and
values, people enter into a value consensus, the glue that holds society together. Parson's believed that in order
for people to conform to shared values and norms 2 things need to happen:
1. Socialisation
2. Social control
-These ensure that people are entering into a shared behaviour system that benefits society. People will have
relatively predictable behaviour, resulting in cooperation between people.
Parson’s Social System Model
-The subsystems then make up society as a whole.
-Institutions are then grouped together into subsystems. Shops, farms and factories all make up the economic
subsystem. These met societies economic subsystem.
-Status roles come in clusters known as institutions made up of related roles. The family Mother, Father and
children.
The System’s Needs
-Parson’s identifies 4 basic needs - sometimes known as ‘AGIL’ schema (formed from the initial letters of each
one.
1. Adaption
All social systems need to adapt to their environment in order to survive. In order to survive, social
systems must have some degree of control over their environment. At a minimum food shelter must be
provided to meet the material needs of its members.
The economy is the function that is primarily concerned with this.
2. Goal attainment
Society needs to set goals and allocate resources to achieve them. In modern society goal attainment is
fundamentally the responsibility of the political system, which establishes a legal and economic
framework. Ex. institutions such as parliament.
3. Integration
The different parts of the system must be integrated together in order to pursue goals. Ex. the law with
its formal norms. This results in reduced conflict as any deviation from the formal norms is settled by the
judicial system, thus protecting social order.
Other subsystems include the media, religion and education.
4. Latency
, Refers to the processes that maintain society over time. The need to ensure that the members of
society maintain the basic values of society. Ex. our kinship network.
Structural Differentiation
-Social change was a gradual evolutionary process where society moved from simple to more complex ways
of living. This process is known as structural differentiation. (Traditional to modern society - social institutions
become more specialised).
-Ex. The family's loss of functions in favour of the workplace, hospitals and schools as a result of
industrialisation. Families came to develop more specialised roles in response to the industrial revolution.
Based on ‘Equilibrium’
-A criticism often given to Parsons is the idea of how society copes with social change if it is based on an
equilibrium. Parson’s response was to say that no society was perfect. In fact all societies were based on a
moving equilibrium.
-Parson’s believed that a moving equilibrium is achieved as disruption / change in one part of the social system
is met with a reaction by another part of the system. Thus, although the system never achieves complete
equilibrium they are always working towards it. Ex. move to modern society and the family then becoming
nuclear.
Merton’s Internal Critique of Functionalism
-Indispensability = Merton does not assume that every institution in society is functionally indispensable. He
points out the possibility of ‘functional alternatives’.
-Functional unity = complex modern societies have many parts rather than a ‘single unity’ that may only be
distantly ‘related’ to one another. Instead of ‘functional unity’, some parts may have ‘functional autonomy’ from
others. It would be hard for example to see the link between the structure of banking and the rules of netball.
-Universal functionalism = some things may be functional for some groups and dysfunctional for others. There
may be conics of interest where powerful people can use influence to their advantage.
Manifest & latent Functions
-Merton also contributes a useful distinction between ‘manifest’ and ‘latent’ functions. Ex. Hopi Indians who, in
times of drought, perform a rain dance with the aim of magically producing rain. This is its manifest or intended
function. From a scientific viewpoint, of course, this is unlikely to achieve its goal.
-However, there may be an unintended or latent function - such as promoting a sense of solidarity in times of
hardship. Meton’s distinction is therefore useful in helping to reveal connections between the social
phenomena, which the actors themselves may not be aware of.
External Critiques of Functionalism
1. Logical criticisms
Functionalism is teleological = this is the idea that something exists because of its effect of function.
Ex. The functionalist claim that the family exists because children need to be socialised is telogical.
Critics argue that a real explanation of something is one that identifies its cause - and logically, a cause
must come before its effect.
Functionalism is also criticised for being unscientific. For many, a theory is only scientific if it is
falsifiable by testng. Functionalists are deviance as both dysfunctional and functional. If deviance is
both functional and dysfunctional, then the theory cannot be disproved and is unscientific.
2. Conflict Perspective Criticisms
Marxists argue that functionalists fail to explain conflict and change. Marxists argue that society is not
a harmonious whole. Rather, it is based on exploitation and divided into classes with conflicting interests
and unequal power.
‘Shared’ values are merely a cloak concealing the interests of the dominant class.
Conflict theorists see functionalism as a conservative ideology legitimating the status quo.
Critics argue that this approach legitimates the privileged position of powerful groups who would
have the most to lose from any fundamental changes in society.
3. Action Perspective Criticisms
, Action theorists do not look at how society shapes us, but how we shape society through our own
interactions.
Wrong (1961) = functionalists have an over-socialised’ or deterministic view of the individual as mere
‘puppets’ of society.
Action approaches argue that society is not a thing ‘out there’ with its own independent existence. For
them, the only social reality is that individuals construct by giving meaning to their worlds.
4. Postmodernist Criticisms
Argue that functionalism assumes that society is stable and orderly. As such, it cannot account for the
diversity and instability in today's postmodern society.
Postmodernists argue that the ‘meta narrative’ (big story) that functionalists tell us about the workings
of society no longer exists because we are increasingly fragmented.
Marxism
-Marx believed, like Durkheim, that the modern world could be improved scientifically.
Key Themes
-Conflict of interests = Marxists reject the functionalist view that the social structure is a harmonious one based
on value consensus. Instead they see it as based on a conflict of economic interests between social classes of
unequal power and wealth.
-Instability & Change = marxists also reject functionalists' view of society as stable, and stress the possibility of
sudden, profound and revolutionary change. Stability is merely the result of the dominant class being able to
impose their will on society.
Historical Materialism
-Materialism is the view that human beings have material needs, such as food, clothing and shelter, and
therefore work to meet them.
-Over time, as the force of production grows and develops, a division of labour also develops, and this
eventually gives rise to a division between two classes - a class that owns the means of production and a
class of labourers.
-Marx refers to the forces and relation of production together as the mode of production. For example,
currently we live in a society with a capitalist mode of production.
-Superstructure = political systems, beliefs & values, literature, art, health, education, technology, welfare,
meda, legal system and family etc.
Class Society & Exploitation
-Primitive communism = a form of classless society with no private ownership or exploitation. This was what
Marx called the earliest stage of human history.
-Capitalism = as the forces of production grow, different types of class society come and go. In class societies,
oen class owns the means of production. This enables them to exploit the labour of others for their own benefit.
In particular, they can control society’s surplus product. This is the difference between what the labourers actually
produce and what is needed simply to keep them alive and working.
Capitalism
-The proletariat do not own the means of production.
-They have to sell their labour power in order to receive wages to survive.
-The high sale price of commodities and low wages creates a ‘surplus’ for the bourgeoisie, which they keep
whilst the proletariat become impoverished.
-Because capitalism is competitive, ownership of the means of production becomes concentrated in fewer and
fewer hands (culminating in today’s giant transnational corporations) this competition drives small independent
producers into the ranks of the proletariat.
-Meanwhile, technological advances de-skill the workforce. Concentration of ownership and the deskilling of
the proletariat together produces class polarisation. (The two become polar opposites of each other).
Functionalism
The Organic Analogy - Durkheim
-Society works like a human body - this is known as the organic analogy and society needs to be studied as a
whole.
-The body has vital organs whilst society has vital institutions.
-The organs / institutions work interdependently.
-The organs / institutions have needs that ensure they don’t die out. For example, the socialisation of the
young.
-All the small units of the body / society work as one in order for overall survival and function.
The Glue That Holds Society Together
-The key word in functionalism is ‘function’ - everything benefits society.
-Durkheim believed that society is much more important than any individual and therefore it is everyone’s job to
ensure it functions and survives - without it we would cease to develop and eventually die out.
-It is essential that society (structure) is based on a value consensus:
-Parsons = in order to ensure social order people must share the same culture. By sharing the same norms and
values, people enter into a value consensus, the glue that holds society together. Parson's believed that in order
for people to conform to shared values and norms 2 things need to happen:
1. Socialisation
2. Social control
-These ensure that people are entering into a shared behaviour system that benefits society. People will have
relatively predictable behaviour, resulting in cooperation between people.
Parson’s Social System Model
-The subsystems then make up society as a whole.
-Institutions are then grouped together into subsystems. Shops, farms and factories all make up the economic
subsystem. These met societies economic subsystem.
-Status roles come in clusters known as institutions made up of related roles. The family Mother, Father and
children.
The System’s Needs
-Parson’s identifies 4 basic needs - sometimes known as ‘AGIL’ schema (formed from the initial letters of each
one.
1. Adaption
All social systems need to adapt to their environment in order to survive. In order to survive, social
systems must have some degree of control over their environment. At a minimum food shelter must be
provided to meet the material needs of its members.
The economy is the function that is primarily concerned with this.
2. Goal attainment
Society needs to set goals and allocate resources to achieve them. In modern society goal attainment is
fundamentally the responsibility of the political system, which establishes a legal and economic
framework. Ex. institutions such as parliament.
3. Integration
The different parts of the system must be integrated together in order to pursue goals. Ex. the law with
its formal norms. This results in reduced conflict as any deviation from the formal norms is settled by the
judicial system, thus protecting social order.
Other subsystems include the media, religion and education.
4. Latency
, Refers to the processes that maintain society over time. The need to ensure that the members of
society maintain the basic values of society. Ex. our kinship network.
Structural Differentiation
-Social change was a gradual evolutionary process where society moved from simple to more complex ways
of living. This process is known as structural differentiation. (Traditional to modern society - social institutions
become more specialised).
-Ex. The family's loss of functions in favour of the workplace, hospitals and schools as a result of
industrialisation. Families came to develop more specialised roles in response to the industrial revolution.
Based on ‘Equilibrium’
-A criticism often given to Parsons is the idea of how society copes with social change if it is based on an
equilibrium. Parson’s response was to say that no society was perfect. In fact all societies were based on a
moving equilibrium.
-Parson’s believed that a moving equilibrium is achieved as disruption / change in one part of the social system
is met with a reaction by another part of the system. Thus, although the system never achieves complete
equilibrium they are always working towards it. Ex. move to modern society and the family then becoming
nuclear.
Merton’s Internal Critique of Functionalism
-Indispensability = Merton does not assume that every institution in society is functionally indispensable. He
points out the possibility of ‘functional alternatives’.
-Functional unity = complex modern societies have many parts rather than a ‘single unity’ that may only be
distantly ‘related’ to one another. Instead of ‘functional unity’, some parts may have ‘functional autonomy’ from
others. It would be hard for example to see the link between the structure of banking and the rules of netball.
-Universal functionalism = some things may be functional for some groups and dysfunctional for others. There
may be conics of interest where powerful people can use influence to their advantage.
Manifest & latent Functions
-Merton also contributes a useful distinction between ‘manifest’ and ‘latent’ functions. Ex. Hopi Indians who, in
times of drought, perform a rain dance with the aim of magically producing rain. This is its manifest or intended
function. From a scientific viewpoint, of course, this is unlikely to achieve its goal.
-However, there may be an unintended or latent function - such as promoting a sense of solidarity in times of
hardship. Meton’s distinction is therefore useful in helping to reveal connections between the social
phenomena, which the actors themselves may not be aware of.
External Critiques of Functionalism
1. Logical criticisms
Functionalism is teleological = this is the idea that something exists because of its effect of function.
Ex. The functionalist claim that the family exists because children need to be socialised is telogical.
Critics argue that a real explanation of something is one that identifies its cause - and logically, a cause
must come before its effect.
Functionalism is also criticised for being unscientific. For many, a theory is only scientific if it is
falsifiable by testng. Functionalists are deviance as both dysfunctional and functional. If deviance is
both functional and dysfunctional, then the theory cannot be disproved and is unscientific.
2. Conflict Perspective Criticisms
Marxists argue that functionalists fail to explain conflict and change. Marxists argue that society is not
a harmonious whole. Rather, it is based on exploitation and divided into classes with conflicting interests
and unequal power.
‘Shared’ values are merely a cloak concealing the interests of the dominant class.
Conflict theorists see functionalism as a conservative ideology legitimating the status quo.
Critics argue that this approach legitimates the privileged position of powerful groups who would
have the most to lose from any fundamental changes in society.
3. Action Perspective Criticisms
, Action theorists do not look at how society shapes us, but how we shape society through our own
interactions.
Wrong (1961) = functionalists have an over-socialised’ or deterministic view of the individual as mere
‘puppets’ of society.
Action approaches argue that society is not a thing ‘out there’ with its own independent existence. For
them, the only social reality is that individuals construct by giving meaning to their worlds.
4. Postmodernist Criticisms
Argue that functionalism assumes that society is stable and orderly. As such, it cannot account for the
diversity and instability in today's postmodern society.
Postmodernists argue that the ‘meta narrative’ (big story) that functionalists tell us about the workings
of society no longer exists because we are increasingly fragmented.
Marxism
-Marx believed, like Durkheim, that the modern world could be improved scientifically.
Key Themes
-Conflict of interests = Marxists reject the functionalist view that the social structure is a harmonious one based
on value consensus. Instead they see it as based on a conflict of economic interests between social classes of
unequal power and wealth.
-Instability & Change = marxists also reject functionalists' view of society as stable, and stress the possibility of
sudden, profound and revolutionary change. Stability is merely the result of the dominant class being able to
impose their will on society.
Historical Materialism
-Materialism is the view that human beings have material needs, such as food, clothing and shelter, and
therefore work to meet them.
-Over time, as the force of production grows and develops, a division of labour also develops, and this
eventually gives rise to a division between two classes - a class that owns the means of production and a
class of labourers.
-Marx refers to the forces and relation of production together as the mode of production. For example,
currently we live in a society with a capitalist mode of production.
-Superstructure = political systems, beliefs & values, literature, art, health, education, technology, welfare,
meda, legal system and family etc.
Class Society & Exploitation
-Primitive communism = a form of classless society with no private ownership or exploitation. This was what
Marx called the earliest stage of human history.
-Capitalism = as the forces of production grow, different types of class society come and go. In class societies,
oen class owns the means of production. This enables them to exploit the labour of others for their own benefit.
In particular, they can control society’s surplus product. This is the difference between what the labourers actually
produce and what is needed simply to keep them alive and working.
Capitalism
-The proletariat do not own the means of production.
-They have to sell their labour power in order to receive wages to survive.
-The high sale price of commodities and low wages creates a ‘surplus’ for the bourgeoisie, which they keep
whilst the proletariat become impoverished.
-Because capitalism is competitive, ownership of the means of production becomes concentrated in fewer and
fewer hands (culminating in today’s giant transnational corporations) this competition drives small independent
producers into the ranks of the proletariat.
-Meanwhile, technological advances de-skill the workforce. Concentration of ownership and the deskilling of
the proletariat together produces class polarisation. (The two become polar opposites of each other).
