CN Psychology - Issues & Debates
Gender Bias
-When men and women are treated or represented differently within psychological research, a gender bias occurs.
-Historically, psychology has been a male-dominated field and therefore many psychological theories represent a
male viewpoint.
-You must be able to discuss gender bias in terms of androcentrism, alpha bias and beta bias.
-Universality = psychologists attempt to create laws of behaviour which are applicable to all members of society
(universal). Theories which ignore the real differences between genders do not achieve universality.
-Androcentrism = this occurs when the behaviour of men is considered to be the norm and that any female
behaviour which differs is considered to be atypical. Androcentrism can occur as either alpha or beta bias. The
opposing stance is gynocentrism.
● Ex. An example of androcentrism is related to female premenstrual syndrome. Some researchers suggest
that the existence of PMS stereotypes female emotional responses (especially aggression) as irrational
and purely a result of hormonal changes. However, male aggression is often thought to be a rational
response to external pressure (Brescoll & Uhlman 2008)
-Alpha bias = this occurs when psychological theories suggest there are real world enduring differences between
men and women. These may enhance or undervalue females.
● Ex. Freud considered femininity to be a failed masculinity. His theory considered females to be inferior to
men and they experience penis envy and do not undergo the Oedipus Complex, experiencing castration
anxiety as boys do. Furthermore, the superego is developed from the Oedipus Complex and therefore for
Freud, women must be morally inferior.
-Beta bias = argued to exist when a theory ignores or minimises the differences between the sexes. This, however,
can lead to the needs of one gender (usually women) being ignored.
● Ex. The fight or flight response assumes that males and females react to stressful situations in the same
way. However, Taylor et al found that women tend and befriend in stressful situations protecting their
offspring.
Gender Bias Examples
1. The sociobiological theory of relationship formation (sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour)
suggests that it is in the male’s interest to try to impregnate as many women as possible to increase the chances of
his genes being passed on to the next generation. This leads to men preferring to have short-term relationships, and
showing a preference for young women with signs of fertility (e.g. waist: hip ratio). For the female, the best chance of
preserving her genes is to ensure the healthy survival of relatively few offspring. Therefore, women prefer long-term
monogamous relationships, and show a preference for older, strong wealthy men.
2. Psychodynamic theory states that morality is governed by the superego. Boys go through the Oedipus
conflict, which leads to a strong fear of castration. The conflict is resolved when they identify with their father, taking
on his morals. Boys have a stronger sense of morality (superego) than girls because the conflict is greater for them –
girls do not experience castration anxiety in the phallic stage of psychosexual development and so are not under the
same pressure to form an identification with the same sex parent. Therefore, girls develop a weak identity with their
mother. Freud saw femininity as failed masculinity. His idea of penis envy means that women are psychologically
defined by the fact that they are not men. He also explained female ‘vanity’ as a defence mechanism – women wish
to make up for their sexual inferiority to men by focusing on their ‘physical charms.’
3. Early research into the fight or flight response was based exclusively on male animals (because female
hormones fluctuate) and was assumed to be a universal response to a threatening situation. This has recently been
challenged by the tend-and-befriend response. This suggests that during our evolutionary past (the environment of
evolutionary adaptiveness or EEA), men and women had different roles in society. Men would have been the hunters,
so the fight or flight response would have been appropriate. Women would have been gatherers whose primary role
, was to protect themselves and their young. This means that women may have a completely different response
system for coping with stress because of this. Fleeing too readily at any sign of danger would put their offspring at
risk. It would have been more adaptive for women to have a ‘tend and befriend’ response, in which a threat is met
with tending to their offspring and befriending other females to form protective alliances. Studies have shown that
females release oxytocin when under stress, and that this suppresses the fight or flight response.
4. Kohlberg (1973) proposed a stage theory of moral development, which suggested that the moral decisions
that we make are based on an ethic of justice. He based his theory on the longitudinal study of a sample of American
men where he asked them to describe what behaviour would be right in certain situations that were related to
fairness. When he tested women, he found that they were less morally developed than men. However, later research
found that this is because of a gender difference (men are concerned with justice and women are concerned with
care e.g. hurting someone else’s feelings).
+ Reflexivity
Many modern researchers are beginning to recognise the effect their own values and assumptions have on
the nature of their work. Rather than seeming such bias as a problem , they embrace it as a crucial and
critical aspect of the research process in general. For instance, in their study of the lack of women in
executive positions in accountancy firms, Dambrin & Lambert (2008) include reflection on how their
gender-related experiences influence their reading of events. Such reflexivity is an important development in
psychology and may lead to greater awareness of the role of personal biases in shaping research in the
future.
- Implications of gender bias
Gender-biased research may create misleading assumptions about female behaviour, fail to challenge
negative stereotypes and validate discriminatory practices. It may provide a scientific ‘justification’ to deny
women opportunities within the workplace or wider society. Thus, gender bias in research is not just a
methodological problem, but may have damaging consequences which affect the lives and prospects of real
women.
- Sexism within the research process
A lack of women appointed to senior research level means that female concerns may not be reflected in the
research questions asked. Male researchers are more likely to have work published and studies which find
evidence for gender differences are more likely to appear in journal articles than those that do not. The lab
experiment may also disadvantage women as female ps are placed in an inequitable relationship with a
(usually male) researcher who has the power to label then as unreasonable or irrational and unable to
complete complex tasks (Nicolson, 1995)
Culture Bias
-Much of traditional psychology represents a western bias. This is not surprising as most of the world’s psychologists
are trained in the West and most of the participants are from the Western world.
-For example, in 1992 64% of the world's 56,000 psychology researchers were in America. Another example can be
seen in Baron & Byrne’s (1991) textbook where 94% of the studies cited were conducted in America. Despite this
many psychologists claim to have discovered facts that are universal and can be applied to all human behaviour.
-However, when the knowledge gained from this research is applied to other cultures it reflects a culture bias.
Ethnocentrism
-Refers to a particular form of cultural bias and is the belief in the superiority of one’s own cultural group. In
psychological research this may be communicated through a view that any behaviours which do not conform to the
(usually individualist) model are somehow deficient, unsophisticated or underdeveloped.
● Ex. (Alpha bias) An example is Milgram’s ‘Germans are different hypothesis’ leading to his theory that
German culture leads to an authoritarian personality.
Gender Bias
-When men and women are treated or represented differently within psychological research, a gender bias occurs.
-Historically, psychology has been a male-dominated field and therefore many psychological theories represent a
male viewpoint.
-You must be able to discuss gender bias in terms of androcentrism, alpha bias and beta bias.
-Universality = psychologists attempt to create laws of behaviour which are applicable to all members of society
(universal). Theories which ignore the real differences between genders do not achieve universality.
-Androcentrism = this occurs when the behaviour of men is considered to be the norm and that any female
behaviour which differs is considered to be atypical. Androcentrism can occur as either alpha or beta bias. The
opposing stance is gynocentrism.
● Ex. An example of androcentrism is related to female premenstrual syndrome. Some researchers suggest
that the existence of PMS stereotypes female emotional responses (especially aggression) as irrational
and purely a result of hormonal changes. However, male aggression is often thought to be a rational
response to external pressure (Brescoll & Uhlman 2008)
-Alpha bias = this occurs when psychological theories suggest there are real world enduring differences between
men and women. These may enhance or undervalue females.
● Ex. Freud considered femininity to be a failed masculinity. His theory considered females to be inferior to
men and they experience penis envy and do not undergo the Oedipus Complex, experiencing castration
anxiety as boys do. Furthermore, the superego is developed from the Oedipus Complex and therefore for
Freud, women must be morally inferior.
-Beta bias = argued to exist when a theory ignores or minimises the differences between the sexes. This, however,
can lead to the needs of one gender (usually women) being ignored.
● Ex. The fight or flight response assumes that males and females react to stressful situations in the same
way. However, Taylor et al found that women tend and befriend in stressful situations protecting their
offspring.
Gender Bias Examples
1. The sociobiological theory of relationship formation (sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour)
suggests that it is in the male’s interest to try to impregnate as many women as possible to increase the chances of
his genes being passed on to the next generation. This leads to men preferring to have short-term relationships, and
showing a preference for young women with signs of fertility (e.g. waist: hip ratio). For the female, the best chance of
preserving her genes is to ensure the healthy survival of relatively few offspring. Therefore, women prefer long-term
monogamous relationships, and show a preference for older, strong wealthy men.
2. Psychodynamic theory states that morality is governed by the superego. Boys go through the Oedipus
conflict, which leads to a strong fear of castration. The conflict is resolved when they identify with their father, taking
on his morals. Boys have a stronger sense of morality (superego) than girls because the conflict is greater for them –
girls do not experience castration anxiety in the phallic stage of psychosexual development and so are not under the
same pressure to form an identification with the same sex parent. Therefore, girls develop a weak identity with their
mother. Freud saw femininity as failed masculinity. His idea of penis envy means that women are psychologically
defined by the fact that they are not men. He also explained female ‘vanity’ as a defence mechanism – women wish
to make up for their sexual inferiority to men by focusing on their ‘physical charms.’
3. Early research into the fight or flight response was based exclusively on male animals (because female
hormones fluctuate) and was assumed to be a universal response to a threatening situation. This has recently been
challenged by the tend-and-befriend response. This suggests that during our evolutionary past (the environment of
evolutionary adaptiveness or EEA), men and women had different roles in society. Men would have been the hunters,
so the fight or flight response would have been appropriate. Women would have been gatherers whose primary role
, was to protect themselves and their young. This means that women may have a completely different response
system for coping with stress because of this. Fleeing too readily at any sign of danger would put their offspring at
risk. It would have been more adaptive for women to have a ‘tend and befriend’ response, in which a threat is met
with tending to their offspring and befriending other females to form protective alliances. Studies have shown that
females release oxytocin when under stress, and that this suppresses the fight or flight response.
4. Kohlberg (1973) proposed a stage theory of moral development, which suggested that the moral decisions
that we make are based on an ethic of justice. He based his theory on the longitudinal study of a sample of American
men where he asked them to describe what behaviour would be right in certain situations that were related to
fairness. When he tested women, he found that they were less morally developed than men. However, later research
found that this is because of a gender difference (men are concerned with justice and women are concerned with
care e.g. hurting someone else’s feelings).
+ Reflexivity
Many modern researchers are beginning to recognise the effect their own values and assumptions have on
the nature of their work. Rather than seeming such bias as a problem , they embrace it as a crucial and
critical aspect of the research process in general. For instance, in their study of the lack of women in
executive positions in accountancy firms, Dambrin & Lambert (2008) include reflection on how their
gender-related experiences influence their reading of events. Such reflexivity is an important development in
psychology and may lead to greater awareness of the role of personal biases in shaping research in the
future.
- Implications of gender bias
Gender-biased research may create misleading assumptions about female behaviour, fail to challenge
negative stereotypes and validate discriminatory practices. It may provide a scientific ‘justification’ to deny
women opportunities within the workplace or wider society. Thus, gender bias in research is not just a
methodological problem, but may have damaging consequences which affect the lives and prospects of real
women.
- Sexism within the research process
A lack of women appointed to senior research level means that female concerns may not be reflected in the
research questions asked. Male researchers are more likely to have work published and studies which find
evidence for gender differences are more likely to appear in journal articles than those that do not. The lab
experiment may also disadvantage women as female ps are placed in an inequitable relationship with a
(usually male) researcher who has the power to label then as unreasonable or irrational and unable to
complete complex tasks (Nicolson, 1995)
Culture Bias
-Much of traditional psychology represents a western bias. This is not surprising as most of the world’s psychologists
are trained in the West and most of the participants are from the Western world.
-For example, in 1992 64% of the world's 56,000 psychology researchers were in America. Another example can be
seen in Baron & Byrne’s (1991) textbook where 94% of the studies cited were conducted in America. Despite this
many psychologists claim to have discovered facts that are universal and can be applied to all human behaviour.
-However, when the knowledge gained from this research is applied to other cultures it reflects a culture bias.
Ethnocentrism
-Refers to a particular form of cultural bias and is the belief in the superiority of one’s own cultural group. In
psychological research this may be communicated through a view that any behaviours which do not conform to the
(usually individualist) model are somehow deficient, unsophisticated or underdeveloped.
● Ex. (Alpha bias) An example is Milgram’s ‘Germans are different hypothesis’ leading to his theory that
German culture leads to an authoritarian personality.
