Engelse taalkunde II – English clause
grammar
Functional layers of meaning in the clause
Functional:
- Use: functional grammar = ‘natural grammar’: system had evolved to satisfy human needs
- Meaning:
o Linguistic forms: realizations of specific functions or meanings differences in forms tend to
spell differences in meaning
o Grammar = meaning-encoding device: there is meaning in the particular structure of
combination
o 2 broad types of form-meaning correlates:
Ideational/representational: to construe or represent experience, to understand
environment clause = representation
Interpersonal: to negotiate representational meaning socially between speech
participants, to act on others in environment clause = exchange
Textual function: links complex ideas together into coherent and cohesive waves of
information, breathes relevance into the other two
- Each element in language is explained by reference to its function in the total linguistic system: each
parts is functional with respect to the whole
Functional approach to the clause
- Clause: grammatical unit which has a verb as its conceptual head
o Consists of…
Verb designating a process
One or more participants associated with the process
Optional circumstances
o Types
Intransitive: no object, 1 participant: subject
Intransitive, copular: copular verb with complement to subject
Transitive: 1 object
Ditransitive: 2 objects
Complextransitive: object and complement to object
o Interpersonal functions: clause consists of particular syntactic roles onto which the
representational functions are mapped
o Types: speech function (typical correlations of clause type and speech function)
Declarative
Interrogative
Imperative
Exclamative
o Thematic or textual functional analysis
Theme: starting point for message
Frequently marked of by speech intonation
Clause organized into 2 information units boundary is likely to coincide
with junction between theme and rheme
Rheme; part in which theme is developed
,o Intonation and stress placement
Clauses are spoken on 1 tone unit
Tonic syllable tends to be part of lexically full word in clause
Tonic syllable: carries the most prominent change in pitch
Choice of tone realized basic semantic values associated with clause as
communicative act
Falling pitch certainty
Rising pitch uncertainty
Tones of English
o Falling
o Rising
o Level/low rising
o Falling-rising
o Rising-falling
o Falling + level
o Rising-falling + level
Tonic element coincides with information focus
1 information unit consists of given information followed by new information
+ 1 information unit coincides with 1 clause
Most salient part of the new (= information focus) is marked by tonic
prominence
, Chapter 1: basic clause types
Clause types + communicative functions/illocutionary acts (typical use)
1. Declaratives – make statements
2. Interrogatives – ask questions
3. Imperatives – utter commands
4. Exclamatives – utter exclamations
5. Tag questions
May also be used incongruently: express other that their default communicative functions = indirect
speech acts
Mood types: use of verbal inflections that allow speakers to express their attitude toward what they are
saying
- Realis: indicate that sth is actually the case or not the case
- Irrealis: indicate that sth is not actually the case or that a certain situation or action is known to have
happened
MOOD element
- Main illocutionary acts of stating, questioning and commanding are typically realized by variation on
order of MOOD element, the rest of the clause (residue) remains unchanged
- Main elements of structure which together form MOOD element are subject and finite
o Indicative (declarative or interrogative) and imperative moods are manifested by presence or
absence of subject ad order in which subject and finite verb occur
Criteria for ‘finiteness’
- 3 criteria
o Finite VPs can occur as VP of an independent clause
o Finite VPs have tense contrast (they distinguish between present and past tense)
o Finite VPs have person and number concord with subject
- Distinction
o Finite VP: first or only word is finite verb, the rest (if any) are non-finite verbs
o Non-finite VP: contain non-finite verb forms only: infinitive, present participle, past participle
- Finiteness form functional perspective: establishing temporal or modal link with speech event
(expressing time or modality)
- Only finite independent clauses have mood: subordinate clauses and minor clauses do not allow for
alternative orderings of subject and finite which are essential to mood element as expression of
interpersonal interaction
grammar
Functional layers of meaning in the clause
Functional:
- Use: functional grammar = ‘natural grammar’: system had evolved to satisfy human needs
- Meaning:
o Linguistic forms: realizations of specific functions or meanings differences in forms tend to
spell differences in meaning
o Grammar = meaning-encoding device: there is meaning in the particular structure of
combination
o 2 broad types of form-meaning correlates:
Ideational/representational: to construe or represent experience, to understand
environment clause = representation
Interpersonal: to negotiate representational meaning socially between speech
participants, to act on others in environment clause = exchange
Textual function: links complex ideas together into coherent and cohesive waves of
information, breathes relevance into the other two
- Each element in language is explained by reference to its function in the total linguistic system: each
parts is functional with respect to the whole
Functional approach to the clause
- Clause: grammatical unit which has a verb as its conceptual head
o Consists of…
Verb designating a process
One or more participants associated with the process
Optional circumstances
o Types
Intransitive: no object, 1 participant: subject
Intransitive, copular: copular verb with complement to subject
Transitive: 1 object
Ditransitive: 2 objects
Complextransitive: object and complement to object
o Interpersonal functions: clause consists of particular syntactic roles onto which the
representational functions are mapped
o Types: speech function (typical correlations of clause type and speech function)
Declarative
Interrogative
Imperative
Exclamative
o Thematic or textual functional analysis
Theme: starting point for message
Frequently marked of by speech intonation
Clause organized into 2 information units boundary is likely to coincide
with junction between theme and rheme
Rheme; part in which theme is developed
,o Intonation and stress placement
Clauses are spoken on 1 tone unit
Tonic syllable tends to be part of lexically full word in clause
Tonic syllable: carries the most prominent change in pitch
Choice of tone realized basic semantic values associated with clause as
communicative act
Falling pitch certainty
Rising pitch uncertainty
Tones of English
o Falling
o Rising
o Level/low rising
o Falling-rising
o Rising-falling
o Falling + level
o Rising-falling + level
Tonic element coincides with information focus
1 information unit consists of given information followed by new information
+ 1 information unit coincides with 1 clause
Most salient part of the new (= information focus) is marked by tonic
prominence
, Chapter 1: basic clause types
Clause types + communicative functions/illocutionary acts (typical use)
1. Declaratives – make statements
2. Interrogatives – ask questions
3. Imperatives – utter commands
4. Exclamatives – utter exclamations
5. Tag questions
May also be used incongruently: express other that their default communicative functions = indirect
speech acts
Mood types: use of verbal inflections that allow speakers to express their attitude toward what they are
saying
- Realis: indicate that sth is actually the case or not the case
- Irrealis: indicate that sth is not actually the case or that a certain situation or action is known to have
happened
MOOD element
- Main illocutionary acts of stating, questioning and commanding are typically realized by variation on
order of MOOD element, the rest of the clause (residue) remains unchanged
- Main elements of structure which together form MOOD element are subject and finite
o Indicative (declarative or interrogative) and imperative moods are manifested by presence or
absence of subject ad order in which subject and finite verb occur
Criteria for ‘finiteness’
- 3 criteria
o Finite VPs can occur as VP of an independent clause
o Finite VPs have tense contrast (they distinguish between present and past tense)
o Finite VPs have person and number concord with subject
- Distinction
o Finite VP: first or only word is finite verb, the rest (if any) are non-finite verbs
o Non-finite VP: contain non-finite verb forms only: infinitive, present participle, past participle
- Finiteness form functional perspective: establishing temporal or modal link with speech event
(expressing time or modality)
- Only finite independent clauses have mood: subordinate clauses and minor clauses do not allow for
alternative orderings of subject and finite which are essential to mood element as expression of
interpersonal interaction
