NUR 2063 ESSENTIALS OF
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE REVIEW;
Chapter 2
What is Pathology? The study and diagnosis of the disease through examination of organs,
tissues, cells and body fluids
What is Physiology? The study of the mechanical physical and biochemical functions of
living organisms
What is Pathophysiology? THE SUUDY OF ABNORMALITIES IN PHYSIOLOGIC
FUNCTIONG OF LIVING BEINGS
What is the framework for Pathophysiology?
Etiology – The study of the causes or reasons for phenomena, identification of the cause
factors disease
Pathogenesis- The development or the evolution. How did the disease actually evolve?
Begin? Manifestations?
Clinical Manifestations- They are observed signs of the disease EX: increase in WBC
Implications/Treatments- An understanding of the etiology, pathophysiology and
pathogenesis, determine what will help. What treatment?
Homeostasis & Allostasis
What is Homeostasis? Remaining stable, set point, equilibrium, systems are in balance
What is Allostasis? Ability to successfully adapt to challenges. A dynamic process trhat
maintains or reestablishes homeostasis
Stress and Disease - Hans Selye- the pioneer in the study of stress and disease, described
stages of adaptation to a stressful event:
Alarm :Hypothalamus Activates corticotropin, fight or flight response as the result of
stressful stimulus. Internal/external HPA- Hypothalamus Pituitary Adrenal Axis
Resistance: Activity of the nervous and endocrine system in returning the body to
homeostasis.
Hypothalamus secretes corticotropin releasing hormone CRH. Activates Anterior
Pituitary
Secretes ACTH Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
Recovery OR Exhaustion: Where the body can no longer return to homeostasis,
Allostatic Overload “wear and tear on the body”
,Stress as a Concept
1. Reactions to stress vary depending upon
1. Genetic constitution
2. Gender
3. Past experiences
4. Cultural influences
5. Developmental stage
2. 6 Age.
Conditions or situations that increase the likelihood of encountering a stressor.
Mediators of Stress and Adaptation
Hormones Catecholamines
Norepinephrine, Epinephrine
Adrenocortical Steroids
Cortisol, Aldosterone
Neurohormonal Mediators
Endorphins
Sex Hormones
Growth Hormone
Adaptation, Coping & Illness
Individual Stress Response
Effects of Stress Response Influenced by
Allostatic overload
Leads to various illnesses and disorders, both physical and emotional
Chemical mediators form the stress response contribute to various illnesses: Cortisol,
catecholamines, cytokines.
CH 3 Cell Structure and Function
Cellular Metabolism- is the biochemical process whereby foodstuffs are used to provide
cellular energy and biomolecules. Cellular metabolism includes two separate and opposite
phases: anabolism and catabolism. Anabolism refers to energy-using metabolic processes or
pathways that result in the synthesis of complex molecules such as fats. Catabolism refers to the
energy-releasing breakdown of nutrient sources such as glucose to provide ATP to the cell.
All living cells must continually perform essential cellular functions such as movement, ion
transport, and synthesis of macromolecules.
ATP serves as the “energy currency” of the cell
Glycolysis- The catabolic process of energy production begins with the intestinal digestion of
foodstuffs into small molecules: proteins into amino acids, polysaccharides into simple sugars
(monosaccharides), and fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
,- glycolysis is an important provider of ATP under anaerobic conditions because oxygen is not
required. Thus ATP production by glycolysis becomes important during conditions of reduced
cellular oxygenation
Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)
Ten enzymatic steps are required glycolysis to break glucose into two 3-carbon pyruvate
molecules. A net gain of two ATP molecules is achieved.
KNOW KREBS CYCLE process
Chapter 24 Fluid & Electrolyte Homeostasis & Imbalances
Body Fluids
• Body fluid flows in arteries, veins, and lymph vessels
• They are secreted into specialized compartments-
• Joints
• Cerebral Ventricle
• Intestinal Lumen
Fluid Excretion
• Fluid excretion normally occurs through the urinary tract, bowels, lungs and skin.
• Visible Sweat
• Exhaling
• Fecal excretion
Fluid Loss through Abnormal Routes
• Emesis
• Tubes in the GI tract or other body cavities
• Hemorrhage
• Drainage from fistulas, wounds, or open skin
• Paracentesis
VOLUME DEFICIT
ETIOLOGY
CAUSED BY REMOVAL OF A SODIUM CONTAINING FLUID FROM THE BODY
Weight loss of 2.2 lbs.
CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
• Sudden Weight Loss
• Postural blood pressure decrease with increase heart rate
• Flat neck veins
• Lightheadedness
, • Dizziness
• Syncope
• Oliguria (Small volume of concentrated urine
• Decreased skin tugor
• Dry Mucus Membranes
• Hard Stools
• Soft sunken eyeballs
• Longitudinal furrows in the tongue
Volume excess
ETIOLOGY
• -CAUSED BY ADDITION OR RETINTION OF ISOTONIC SALINE EXCESS
• -EXCESSIVE SECRETION OF HORMONE ALDOSTERONE-CAUSES KIDNEY TO
RETAIN SALINE
• Weight GAIN of 2.2 lbs.
CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
• Bounding Pulse
• Crackles in lungs
• Neck vein distension
• Dyspnea
• Orthopenea (SOB when lying down)
• Sudden weight gain
• Edema
Body fluid concentration imbalances
• Imbalances are disorders of concentration and not the amount of extracellular fluid. Also
called water imbalances *See Handout*
• SODIUM- 135 – 145 mEq/L
Hyponatremia
• Water Intoxication
• Etiology-Gain of relatively more water than salt
Hypernatremia-
• Clinical Dehydration
• Etiology- ECF fluid contains relatively too little water for sodium ions present.
• Clinical dehydration
• Etiology- Combination of two fluid disorders: Extracellular Volume deficit and
hypernatremia.
• Too small a volume of fluid in the Extracellular compartment (vascular and interstitial)
and the body fluids are too concentrated. Vomiting and Diarrhea
Clinical Manifestations-
• Postural blood pressure decrease with increase in heart rate
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE REVIEW;
Chapter 2
What is Pathology? The study and diagnosis of the disease through examination of organs,
tissues, cells and body fluids
What is Physiology? The study of the mechanical physical and biochemical functions of
living organisms
What is Pathophysiology? THE SUUDY OF ABNORMALITIES IN PHYSIOLOGIC
FUNCTIONG OF LIVING BEINGS
What is the framework for Pathophysiology?
Etiology – The study of the causes or reasons for phenomena, identification of the cause
factors disease
Pathogenesis- The development or the evolution. How did the disease actually evolve?
Begin? Manifestations?
Clinical Manifestations- They are observed signs of the disease EX: increase in WBC
Implications/Treatments- An understanding of the etiology, pathophysiology and
pathogenesis, determine what will help. What treatment?
Homeostasis & Allostasis
What is Homeostasis? Remaining stable, set point, equilibrium, systems are in balance
What is Allostasis? Ability to successfully adapt to challenges. A dynamic process trhat
maintains or reestablishes homeostasis
Stress and Disease - Hans Selye- the pioneer in the study of stress and disease, described
stages of adaptation to a stressful event:
Alarm :Hypothalamus Activates corticotropin, fight or flight response as the result of
stressful stimulus. Internal/external HPA- Hypothalamus Pituitary Adrenal Axis
Resistance: Activity of the nervous and endocrine system in returning the body to
homeostasis.
Hypothalamus secretes corticotropin releasing hormone CRH. Activates Anterior
Pituitary
Secretes ACTH Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
Recovery OR Exhaustion: Where the body can no longer return to homeostasis,
Allostatic Overload “wear and tear on the body”
,Stress as a Concept
1. Reactions to stress vary depending upon
1. Genetic constitution
2. Gender
3. Past experiences
4. Cultural influences
5. Developmental stage
2. 6 Age.
Conditions or situations that increase the likelihood of encountering a stressor.
Mediators of Stress and Adaptation
Hormones Catecholamines
Norepinephrine, Epinephrine
Adrenocortical Steroids
Cortisol, Aldosterone
Neurohormonal Mediators
Endorphins
Sex Hormones
Growth Hormone
Adaptation, Coping & Illness
Individual Stress Response
Effects of Stress Response Influenced by
Allostatic overload
Leads to various illnesses and disorders, both physical and emotional
Chemical mediators form the stress response contribute to various illnesses: Cortisol,
catecholamines, cytokines.
CH 3 Cell Structure and Function
Cellular Metabolism- is the biochemical process whereby foodstuffs are used to provide
cellular energy and biomolecules. Cellular metabolism includes two separate and opposite
phases: anabolism and catabolism. Anabolism refers to energy-using metabolic processes or
pathways that result in the synthesis of complex molecules such as fats. Catabolism refers to the
energy-releasing breakdown of nutrient sources such as glucose to provide ATP to the cell.
All living cells must continually perform essential cellular functions such as movement, ion
transport, and synthesis of macromolecules.
ATP serves as the “energy currency” of the cell
Glycolysis- The catabolic process of energy production begins with the intestinal digestion of
foodstuffs into small molecules: proteins into amino acids, polysaccharides into simple sugars
(monosaccharides), and fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
,- glycolysis is an important provider of ATP under anaerobic conditions because oxygen is not
required. Thus ATP production by glycolysis becomes important during conditions of reduced
cellular oxygenation
Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)
Ten enzymatic steps are required glycolysis to break glucose into two 3-carbon pyruvate
molecules. A net gain of two ATP molecules is achieved.
KNOW KREBS CYCLE process
Chapter 24 Fluid & Electrolyte Homeostasis & Imbalances
Body Fluids
• Body fluid flows in arteries, veins, and lymph vessels
• They are secreted into specialized compartments-
• Joints
• Cerebral Ventricle
• Intestinal Lumen
Fluid Excretion
• Fluid excretion normally occurs through the urinary tract, bowels, lungs and skin.
• Visible Sweat
• Exhaling
• Fecal excretion
Fluid Loss through Abnormal Routes
• Emesis
• Tubes in the GI tract or other body cavities
• Hemorrhage
• Drainage from fistulas, wounds, or open skin
• Paracentesis
VOLUME DEFICIT
ETIOLOGY
CAUSED BY REMOVAL OF A SODIUM CONTAINING FLUID FROM THE BODY
Weight loss of 2.2 lbs.
CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
• Sudden Weight Loss
• Postural blood pressure decrease with increase heart rate
• Flat neck veins
• Lightheadedness
, • Dizziness
• Syncope
• Oliguria (Small volume of concentrated urine
• Decreased skin tugor
• Dry Mucus Membranes
• Hard Stools
• Soft sunken eyeballs
• Longitudinal furrows in the tongue
Volume excess
ETIOLOGY
• -CAUSED BY ADDITION OR RETINTION OF ISOTONIC SALINE EXCESS
• -EXCESSIVE SECRETION OF HORMONE ALDOSTERONE-CAUSES KIDNEY TO
RETAIN SALINE
• Weight GAIN of 2.2 lbs.
CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
• Bounding Pulse
• Crackles in lungs
• Neck vein distension
• Dyspnea
• Orthopenea (SOB when lying down)
• Sudden weight gain
• Edema
Body fluid concentration imbalances
• Imbalances are disorders of concentration and not the amount of extracellular fluid. Also
called water imbalances *See Handout*
• SODIUM- 135 – 145 mEq/L
Hyponatremia
• Water Intoxication
• Etiology-Gain of relatively more water than salt
Hypernatremia-
• Clinical Dehydration
• Etiology- ECF fluid contains relatively too little water for sodium ions present.
• Clinical dehydration
• Etiology- Combination of two fluid disorders: Extracellular Volume deficit and
hypernatremia.
• Too small a volume of fluid in the Extracellular compartment (vascular and interstitial)
and the body fluids are too concentrated. Vomiting and Diarrhea
Clinical Manifestations-
• Postural blood pressure decrease with increase in heart rate
