Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank for, Methods Toward a
Science of Behavior and Experience 10th EDITION William J.
Ray
Chapter 1 – What is Science?
Chapter Outline
Science as a Way of Knowing
Tenacity
Authority
Reason
Common Sense
Science
Pseudoscience and Superstition
The Scientific Approach
Early Approaches
Overview
Studying Behavior and Experience
Behavior: A Road Into the Subjective Experience of Research Participants
The People Who Perform Science
Chapter Overview
Knowledge about the world is gathered in several ways. In tenacity, a belief is accepted because it is
presented over and over again. Authority is a way of knowing in which we accept an idea because an
authority figure tells us to. Knowledge can be acquired through reason and logic. Direct experience
serves as the basis of common sense, which can lead to knowledge. Each possesses shortcomings.
In contrast to these three, science relies upon the scientific method that allows for self-correction of
ideas. The examples of Croesus, Galen, and Semmelweis provide historical insight in the development
of science. Science verifies itself because of its empirical nature whether one is studying at the
cognitive, physiological, or behavioral level. In investigating the subjective experience of subjects,
science must rely upon making inferences from what is directly observable and objective. Above all,
science is a human activity conducted by people and communicated to people.
Chapter Objectives
1. What roles do the scientist, research participant, and witness play in science?
2. Compare and contrast between the different methods of knowing: tenacity, authority, reason,
common sense, and science.
3. How did Galileo advance our thinking from authority to empiricism?
WHAT IS SCIENCE? 1
,4. What is pseudoscience and why does it often influence people’s beliefs?
5. What important strides did Croesus, Galen, and Semmelweis make? How have we advanced in our
contemporary scientific approach?
6. What are the major characteristics of the scientific approach?
7. Why are scientific conclusions never considered final?
8. What is the importance of replication in science? How is replication part of the feedback
component in science?
9. Explain how the scientific method's feedback component refines ideas.
10. What are Newton's Rules of Reasoning (1680) and how are they still utilized today by scientists?
11. How does the concept of empiricism relate to our study of behavior and experience?
12. Summarize Schumacher's four ways of studying psychological processes.
13. How is psychology like other sciences in its reliance on objective observation to study indirectly
unobservable phenomena?
Teaching Points
Often students do not appreciate the self-corrective mechanism of science. You may wish to stress this
by showing how theories undergo modification when the data warrant. Point out that some laypeople
see this as a weakness of a theory and science, thinking, “if it changed, it must not have been a very
good theory.”
Sometimes students are confused when studies of a psychological phenomenon yield conflicting results.
One possible reason for this is that the level of analysis may differ between studies. You may wish to
incorporate this in the discussion of empiricism.
Students sometimes jump to the conclusion that all the ways of knowing things that are addressed in
the textbook (tenacity, authority, reason, and common sense) have little value compared to the
scientific method. A discussion of how authority, reason, and common sense are often good might be
helpful. At the same time, the value of the scientific method as a powerful investigative tool to test
ideas should be stressed.
To emphasize the empirical/theoretical distinction, use concrete examples such as
Is a person who is withdrawn and keeps away from the crowd shy or a snob?
Is a rat that is displaying aggressive behavior experiencing anger, displeasure, or sexual arousal?
Is someone who is crying sad or happy?
Is a person who is gets good grades motivated by success or motivated by a fear of failure?
It is critical that students understand that inferences must be made of internal, subjective processes.
Inferences, however, are not foolproof. To illustrate this, lead a discussion of the inferences that
students make of others based on appearance, race, or gender that are ultimately found to be incorrect.
2 WHAT IS SCIENCE?
,Teaching Activities
Background Knowledge Probe
To introduce students to the concepts and principles of this textbook and to help you gain a sense of
what they bring to the course, consider assessing their background. Use Handout 1-1 before starting
the course and think of repeating it at the end of the course to measure how much students have
learned.
What is Science?
To introduce this chapter, consider asking students to share their views of what science is and what
scientists do. Contrast these perceptions with their sense of what psychology is and what psychologists
do. You can accomplish this by asking them to write or to say the first thing that comes to mind. Often
students do not see psychology as a science, but simply and entirely as a mental health profession.
Pseudoscience and Superstition
Ask students to recall any advertisements they have encountered that have used pseudoscience as a
means to persuade potential customers that a product really works. Next, ask students to describe some
common superstitions (e.g., walking under a ladder is bad luck) and to surmise how such false beliefs got
started.
Logging Ways of Knowing
We probably have experience with each of the ways of knowing presented in Chapter 1. Ask students to
keep a log or journal of how they use each of the ways of knowing in their daily activities (e.g., working,
studying, interacting with others).
Comparisons of Ways of Knowing
Using Handout 1-2, ask students to identify the characteristics of tenacity, authority, reason, common
sense, and science. Next, students should form groups and review their responses.
Decision Making
Ask students to brainstorm how they would use tenacity, authority, reason, common sense, and science
to make decisions. Possible decisions include purchasing a particular used car or selecting a graduate
school.
The Use of Reasoning in Science
As the textbook suggests, science involves the process of reasoning. To emphasize this point, use the
question of whether animals can see color. Make sure the students understand the different
conclusions that follow depending on whether the color choices for the animal are blue/green, color/no
color, or blue/green/no color. Discuss how this experiment could be adapted to test whether babies can
see color. Suggest to students that subjective experience can be answered only through inference from
behavior.
Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop
http://www.wadsworth.com/ psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/resch_wrk.html
The Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop site has a link labeled What is Science? that includes
relevant information pertaining to the scientific method. This workshop segment gives students a
WHAT IS SCIENCE? 3
, chance to compare their personal definition of science to a textbook definition. A contrast also is
provided between the characteristics of science to other methods for fixing beliefs.
Internet Resources
Statistical Assessment Service (www.stats.org)
The purpose of this website is to provide comment on the accuracy of scientific and social research. It
attempts to identify “bad data and research.” Of particular interest are the Dubious Data Awards, which
highlight the worst cases of “bad research.”
Philosophy of Science (www.philosopher.org.uk/sci.htm)
You will find information on most of the philosophies and philosophers that have shaped the sciences,
such as John Locke.
4000 Years of Women in Science (http://www.astr.ua.edu/4000WS/)
This site describes the contributions of women in science from the past 4000 years. It includes
biographies of many scientists.
Randi $1,000,000 paranormal challenge (http://skepdic.com/randi.html)
Here is a chance to win a $1,000,000 prize. However, it will not be easy and this site tells us why. The
fact that no one has yet claimed the prize warns us that we should all be skeptical of paranormal,
supernatural, and pseudoscientific claims.
Classics in the History of Psychology (http://psychclassics.yorku.ca)
A wealth of information from primary sources on the history of psychology is found here. Relevant
examples include statistics and the role of women in psychology.
Research Activities for Students
The goals of the research activities are to: (1) relate Chapter 1 on an applied learning dimension, and (2)
get students involved in research.
1. Insanity Plea: Inferring Subjective Experience in Science.
As discussed in the text, scientists often use objective behavior to study subjective experience. Use
online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed to find a research article in a psychology journal on the
subject of the insanity plea. Address the following below:
a. Cite the author(s), the year published, the name of the article, the journal, and the page
numbers.
b. What were the research questions?
c. How did the author use observable behavior to infer insanity? How was insanity measured?
d. Do you think this was a valid way to measure insanity? If so, what convinced you that it is a valid
measure? If not, what would convince you that it was a valid measure?
e. What conclusions do the investigators reach in this article? How are they tentative or
probabilistic? Did the investigators claim they "proved" anything?
2. Science in the Media. Science is all around us.
4 WHAT IS SCIENCE?
Science of Behavior and Experience 10th EDITION William J.
Ray
Chapter 1 – What is Science?
Chapter Outline
Science as a Way of Knowing
Tenacity
Authority
Reason
Common Sense
Science
Pseudoscience and Superstition
The Scientific Approach
Early Approaches
Overview
Studying Behavior and Experience
Behavior: A Road Into the Subjective Experience of Research Participants
The People Who Perform Science
Chapter Overview
Knowledge about the world is gathered in several ways. In tenacity, a belief is accepted because it is
presented over and over again. Authority is a way of knowing in which we accept an idea because an
authority figure tells us to. Knowledge can be acquired through reason and logic. Direct experience
serves as the basis of common sense, which can lead to knowledge. Each possesses shortcomings.
In contrast to these three, science relies upon the scientific method that allows for self-correction of
ideas. The examples of Croesus, Galen, and Semmelweis provide historical insight in the development
of science. Science verifies itself because of its empirical nature whether one is studying at the
cognitive, physiological, or behavioral level. In investigating the subjective experience of subjects,
science must rely upon making inferences from what is directly observable and objective. Above all,
science is a human activity conducted by people and communicated to people.
Chapter Objectives
1. What roles do the scientist, research participant, and witness play in science?
2. Compare and contrast between the different methods of knowing: tenacity, authority, reason,
common sense, and science.
3. How did Galileo advance our thinking from authority to empiricism?
WHAT IS SCIENCE? 1
,4. What is pseudoscience and why does it often influence people’s beliefs?
5. What important strides did Croesus, Galen, and Semmelweis make? How have we advanced in our
contemporary scientific approach?
6. What are the major characteristics of the scientific approach?
7. Why are scientific conclusions never considered final?
8. What is the importance of replication in science? How is replication part of the feedback
component in science?
9. Explain how the scientific method's feedback component refines ideas.
10. What are Newton's Rules of Reasoning (1680) and how are they still utilized today by scientists?
11. How does the concept of empiricism relate to our study of behavior and experience?
12. Summarize Schumacher's four ways of studying psychological processes.
13. How is psychology like other sciences in its reliance on objective observation to study indirectly
unobservable phenomena?
Teaching Points
Often students do not appreciate the self-corrective mechanism of science. You may wish to stress this
by showing how theories undergo modification when the data warrant. Point out that some laypeople
see this as a weakness of a theory and science, thinking, “if it changed, it must not have been a very
good theory.”
Sometimes students are confused when studies of a psychological phenomenon yield conflicting results.
One possible reason for this is that the level of analysis may differ between studies. You may wish to
incorporate this in the discussion of empiricism.
Students sometimes jump to the conclusion that all the ways of knowing things that are addressed in
the textbook (tenacity, authority, reason, and common sense) have little value compared to the
scientific method. A discussion of how authority, reason, and common sense are often good might be
helpful. At the same time, the value of the scientific method as a powerful investigative tool to test
ideas should be stressed.
To emphasize the empirical/theoretical distinction, use concrete examples such as
Is a person who is withdrawn and keeps away from the crowd shy or a snob?
Is a rat that is displaying aggressive behavior experiencing anger, displeasure, or sexual arousal?
Is someone who is crying sad or happy?
Is a person who is gets good grades motivated by success or motivated by a fear of failure?
It is critical that students understand that inferences must be made of internal, subjective processes.
Inferences, however, are not foolproof. To illustrate this, lead a discussion of the inferences that
students make of others based on appearance, race, or gender that are ultimately found to be incorrect.
2 WHAT IS SCIENCE?
,Teaching Activities
Background Knowledge Probe
To introduce students to the concepts and principles of this textbook and to help you gain a sense of
what they bring to the course, consider assessing their background. Use Handout 1-1 before starting
the course and think of repeating it at the end of the course to measure how much students have
learned.
What is Science?
To introduce this chapter, consider asking students to share their views of what science is and what
scientists do. Contrast these perceptions with their sense of what psychology is and what psychologists
do. You can accomplish this by asking them to write or to say the first thing that comes to mind. Often
students do not see psychology as a science, but simply and entirely as a mental health profession.
Pseudoscience and Superstition
Ask students to recall any advertisements they have encountered that have used pseudoscience as a
means to persuade potential customers that a product really works. Next, ask students to describe some
common superstitions (e.g., walking under a ladder is bad luck) and to surmise how such false beliefs got
started.
Logging Ways of Knowing
We probably have experience with each of the ways of knowing presented in Chapter 1. Ask students to
keep a log or journal of how they use each of the ways of knowing in their daily activities (e.g., working,
studying, interacting with others).
Comparisons of Ways of Knowing
Using Handout 1-2, ask students to identify the characteristics of tenacity, authority, reason, common
sense, and science. Next, students should form groups and review their responses.
Decision Making
Ask students to brainstorm how they would use tenacity, authority, reason, common sense, and science
to make decisions. Possible decisions include purchasing a particular used car or selecting a graduate
school.
The Use of Reasoning in Science
As the textbook suggests, science involves the process of reasoning. To emphasize this point, use the
question of whether animals can see color. Make sure the students understand the different
conclusions that follow depending on whether the color choices for the animal are blue/green, color/no
color, or blue/green/no color. Discuss how this experiment could be adapted to test whether babies can
see color. Suggest to students that subjective experience can be answered only through inference from
behavior.
Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop
http://www.wadsworth.com/ psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/resch_wrk.html
The Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop site has a link labeled What is Science? that includes
relevant information pertaining to the scientific method. This workshop segment gives students a
WHAT IS SCIENCE? 3
, chance to compare their personal definition of science to a textbook definition. A contrast also is
provided between the characteristics of science to other methods for fixing beliefs.
Internet Resources
Statistical Assessment Service (www.stats.org)
The purpose of this website is to provide comment on the accuracy of scientific and social research. It
attempts to identify “bad data and research.” Of particular interest are the Dubious Data Awards, which
highlight the worst cases of “bad research.”
Philosophy of Science (www.philosopher.org.uk/sci.htm)
You will find information on most of the philosophies and philosophers that have shaped the sciences,
such as John Locke.
4000 Years of Women in Science (http://www.astr.ua.edu/4000WS/)
This site describes the contributions of women in science from the past 4000 years. It includes
biographies of many scientists.
Randi $1,000,000 paranormal challenge (http://skepdic.com/randi.html)
Here is a chance to win a $1,000,000 prize. However, it will not be easy and this site tells us why. The
fact that no one has yet claimed the prize warns us that we should all be skeptical of paranormal,
supernatural, and pseudoscientific claims.
Classics in the History of Psychology (http://psychclassics.yorku.ca)
A wealth of information from primary sources on the history of psychology is found here. Relevant
examples include statistics and the role of women in psychology.
Research Activities for Students
The goals of the research activities are to: (1) relate Chapter 1 on an applied learning dimension, and (2)
get students involved in research.
1. Insanity Plea: Inferring Subjective Experience in Science.
As discussed in the text, scientists often use objective behavior to study subjective experience. Use
online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed to find a research article in a psychology journal on the
subject of the insanity plea. Address the following below:
a. Cite the author(s), the year published, the name of the article, the journal, and the page
numbers.
b. What were the research questions?
c. How did the author use observable behavior to infer insanity? How was insanity measured?
d. Do you think this was a valid way to measure insanity? If so, what convinced you that it is a valid
measure? If not, what would convince you that it was a valid measure?
e. What conclusions do the investigators reach in this article? How are they tentative or
probabilistic? Did the investigators claim they "proved" anything?
2. Science in the Media. Science is all around us.
4 WHAT IS SCIENCE?
