Hickman Integrated Principles of Zoology Answer Key For Chapter Questions
Chapter 1
1. To synthesize a definition for life, features of extant, extinct, and ancestral
organisms must be considered. It is not a simple thing to synthesize a
definition that works in all circumstances.
2. Living systems have a unique chemical organization. There is a complex
combination of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids that is not
seen in nonliving material.
3. The hierarchical organization of life recognizes a series of increasingly large
and complex levels, each of which has emergent properties. Emergent
properties are the result of combining components of previous levels to
create new possibilities for functions and structures as those components
work together. The hierarchy begins with cells and then continues to
organisms, populations, and species.
4. Heredity describes the faithful transmission of traits from parent to
offspring. Variation occurs when offspring differ from their parents.
Heredity and variation work together in living systems. Heredity stabilizes
traits that are necessary for survival, while variation provides the material
for natural selection and evolutionary change.
5. As living things receive energy in the form of macromolecules and
subsequently break the macromolecules down, disorder increases. This
exemplifies the second law of thermodynamics.
6. Animals and fungi are heterotrophs, because they take in nutrients from
other sources. Animals obtain nutrition by consuming including plants,
animals, or other organisms. Fungi obtain nutrients by absorbing them from
their environment. Plants are autotrophs because they utilize energy from
the sun to synthesize glucose via photosynthesis.
7. One scenario would include two groups of cattle; one group with the
cellulose-digesting bacteria in their gut, and the other group without the
cellulose-digesting bacteria. To see natural selection as a factor in this trait,
there would need to be a genetic basis that predisposed some cattle to be
able to house the bacteria. While the presence of the bacteria might not have
been critical for survival at that point, the cattle with the bacteria might have
been able to more efficiently obtain nutrients, and even to be able to
consume different nutrients sources that cattle who lacked the cellulose-
digesting bacteria. This cellulose-digesting ability would be especially
important in times of drought, a scarce food supply, or a change in food
supply. If the presence of the bacteria increased the ability of the cattle to
, survive, reproduce, and ultimately out-compete cattle without the bacteria,
cattle without the bacteria would not be favored over time, and the necessity
of the gut microbiome would be present.
8. Science guided by natural law, it is explanatory by reference to natural law, it
is testable, its conclusions are not necessarily the final word, and it is
falsifiable. Scientific creationism, also known as intelligent design theory, is
not falsifiable or testable, but that just means that it falls outside of the realm
of science. It does not make it untrue or uninteresting. Evolutionary studies
are testable and falsifiable, so they fall within the realm of science. Scientists
should be open-minded and respectful of all viewpoints. A scientist who
does not listen to all viewpoints and closes his or her mind to anything might
miss important information.
9. Observation: Pigmentation of moths varies with habitat.
Hypothesis: Moth coloration is directly influenced by an aspect of the
environment.
Null hypothesis: Coloration is not influenced directly by the environment
Experiment: Raise moths from with different pigmentation in a common
area and observe the pigmentation of the offspring.
Results: Offspring resemble the parents.
Conclusion: The null hypothesis is supported; the hypothesis is not
supported.
10. A hypothesis is a potential answer to why an observed phenomenon occurs.
A theory is a powerful hypothesis that explains a wide variety of related
phenomena.
A paradigm is a collection of powerful theories that guide extensive research.
Scientific fact is something that has significant support and no known
contradictions.
11. Proximate causality is that of immediate circumstances. This type of
causality is tested using the experimental method.
Ultimate causality examines explanations that feature evolutionary time.
Ultimate causality is tested using the comparative method.
, 12. Darwin’s five theories of evolution include perpetual change, common
descent, multiplication of species, gradualism, and natural selection. Of these
theories, scientists accept perpetual change as scientific fact.
Chapter 2
1. The high specific heat capacity of water refers to the fact that it takes much
energy to raise one gram of water one degree Celsius. Water molecules form
hydrogen bonds with other water molecules because of their dipolar nature.
To increase temperature, kinetic energy must increase. To increase kinetic
energy, some hydrogen bonds must be broken, which requires energy.
The high heat of vaporization of water means that it takes a large amount of
energy to change 1 gram of liquid water into water vapor. Hydrogen bonds
form between water molecules due to their dipolar nature, and all of these
bonds must be broken to convert liquid water into vapor. This requires
significant energy.
The unique density behavior of water is that it reaches its greatest density
when it is still a liquid. This occurs at 4 degrees Celsius, and water freezes at
zero degrees Celsius. Water is less dense as a solid because the dipolar water
molecules form the maximum number of hydrogen bonds. In ice this results
in a regular, crystalline structure in which the molecules are held farther
apart then they are in liquid water. In liquid water there are fewer than the
maximum number of hydrogen bonds, so the molecules can be closer
together, thereby making liquid water more dense that solid water.
The high surface tension of water is also due to the dipolar nature of water.
The hydrogen bonds that form as a result make water molecules resistant to
being pulled apart.
Water’s capacity to be a good solvent for ions of salts is due to the dipolar
nature of water molecules. The positive ends of water molecules form
hydrogen bonds with anions, while the negative end of a water molecule can
form hydrogen bonds with a cation. Water molecules that surround ions in
this way form a hydration sphere around the ion, which keeps it in a
dissolved state.
2. At the time of the origin of life, earth’s atmosphere is thought to have
consisted primarily of methane and ammonia. Today’s atmosphere consists
primarily of nitrogen and oxygen.
3. Observations: The building blocks for organic molecules where present in
the hypothesized early atmosphere on earth.
, Hypothesis: Collections of individual atoms will form macromolecules if an
electrical spark is provided.
Deduction: Earth’s early reducing atmosphere could give rise to
macromolecules that support life.
Prediction: Given the correct building blocks and conditions,
macromolecules will form.
Data: After one week, 15% of the original carbon had been fixed into larger
molecules.
Controlled variables in this experiment include the concentration of the
chemicals, the apparatus, and the voltage used.
4. The Miller-Urey experiments suggest that the macromolecules that are
necessary to support life could have formed in earth’s early atmosphere.
5. Possible energy sources include lightning, ultraviolet light from the sun, and
energy from hydrothermal vents.
6. Organic molecules may have been concentrated in vesicles that formed as a
result of fatty acid and long chain alcohol aggregations.
7. Simple carbohydrates: glucose and fructose
Storage carbohydrates: sucrose and lactose
Structural carbohydrate: chitin
8. Lipids have low polarity, they do not form polymers, and they are insoluble
in water.
Carbohydrates have C:H:O as 1:2:1, they are water soluble, and they can form
polymers.
9. The primary level of protein structure is made up a series of amino acids that
are joined by peptide bonds.
The secondary level contains alpha helices and beta pleated sheets, which are
new configurations of the primary level of structure. The secondary level is
stabilized by hydrogen bonds.
The tertiary level is the result of bonds that form between amino acid side
chains. Bond types in this level include disulfide, ionic, hydrophobic, and
hydrogen bonds.
Chapter 1
1. To synthesize a definition for life, features of extant, extinct, and ancestral
organisms must be considered. It is not a simple thing to synthesize a
definition that works in all circumstances.
2. Living systems have a unique chemical organization. There is a complex
combination of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids that is not
seen in nonliving material.
3. The hierarchical organization of life recognizes a series of increasingly large
and complex levels, each of which has emergent properties. Emergent
properties are the result of combining components of previous levels to
create new possibilities for functions and structures as those components
work together. The hierarchy begins with cells and then continues to
organisms, populations, and species.
4. Heredity describes the faithful transmission of traits from parent to
offspring. Variation occurs when offspring differ from their parents.
Heredity and variation work together in living systems. Heredity stabilizes
traits that are necessary for survival, while variation provides the material
for natural selection and evolutionary change.
5. As living things receive energy in the form of macromolecules and
subsequently break the macromolecules down, disorder increases. This
exemplifies the second law of thermodynamics.
6. Animals and fungi are heterotrophs, because they take in nutrients from
other sources. Animals obtain nutrition by consuming including plants,
animals, or other organisms. Fungi obtain nutrients by absorbing them from
their environment. Plants are autotrophs because they utilize energy from
the sun to synthesize glucose via photosynthesis.
7. One scenario would include two groups of cattle; one group with the
cellulose-digesting bacteria in their gut, and the other group without the
cellulose-digesting bacteria. To see natural selection as a factor in this trait,
there would need to be a genetic basis that predisposed some cattle to be
able to house the bacteria. While the presence of the bacteria might not have
been critical for survival at that point, the cattle with the bacteria might have
been able to more efficiently obtain nutrients, and even to be able to
consume different nutrients sources that cattle who lacked the cellulose-
digesting bacteria. This cellulose-digesting ability would be especially
important in times of drought, a scarce food supply, or a change in food
supply. If the presence of the bacteria increased the ability of the cattle to
, survive, reproduce, and ultimately out-compete cattle without the bacteria,
cattle without the bacteria would not be favored over time, and the necessity
of the gut microbiome would be present.
8. Science guided by natural law, it is explanatory by reference to natural law, it
is testable, its conclusions are not necessarily the final word, and it is
falsifiable. Scientific creationism, also known as intelligent design theory, is
not falsifiable or testable, but that just means that it falls outside of the realm
of science. It does not make it untrue or uninteresting. Evolutionary studies
are testable and falsifiable, so they fall within the realm of science. Scientists
should be open-minded and respectful of all viewpoints. A scientist who
does not listen to all viewpoints and closes his or her mind to anything might
miss important information.
9. Observation: Pigmentation of moths varies with habitat.
Hypothesis: Moth coloration is directly influenced by an aspect of the
environment.
Null hypothesis: Coloration is not influenced directly by the environment
Experiment: Raise moths from with different pigmentation in a common
area and observe the pigmentation of the offspring.
Results: Offspring resemble the parents.
Conclusion: The null hypothesis is supported; the hypothesis is not
supported.
10. A hypothesis is a potential answer to why an observed phenomenon occurs.
A theory is a powerful hypothesis that explains a wide variety of related
phenomena.
A paradigm is a collection of powerful theories that guide extensive research.
Scientific fact is something that has significant support and no known
contradictions.
11. Proximate causality is that of immediate circumstances. This type of
causality is tested using the experimental method.
Ultimate causality examines explanations that feature evolutionary time.
Ultimate causality is tested using the comparative method.
, 12. Darwin’s five theories of evolution include perpetual change, common
descent, multiplication of species, gradualism, and natural selection. Of these
theories, scientists accept perpetual change as scientific fact.
Chapter 2
1. The high specific heat capacity of water refers to the fact that it takes much
energy to raise one gram of water one degree Celsius. Water molecules form
hydrogen bonds with other water molecules because of their dipolar nature.
To increase temperature, kinetic energy must increase. To increase kinetic
energy, some hydrogen bonds must be broken, which requires energy.
The high heat of vaporization of water means that it takes a large amount of
energy to change 1 gram of liquid water into water vapor. Hydrogen bonds
form between water molecules due to their dipolar nature, and all of these
bonds must be broken to convert liquid water into vapor. This requires
significant energy.
The unique density behavior of water is that it reaches its greatest density
when it is still a liquid. This occurs at 4 degrees Celsius, and water freezes at
zero degrees Celsius. Water is less dense as a solid because the dipolar water
molecules form the maximum number of hydrogen bonds. In ice this results
in a regular, crystalline structure in which the molecules are held farther
apart then they are in liquid water. In liquid water there are fewer than the
maximum number of hydrogen bonds, so the molecules can be closer
together, thereby making liquid water more dense that solid water.
The high surface tension of water is also due to the dipolar nature of water.
The hydrogen bonds that form as a result make water molecules resistant to
being pulled apart.
Water’s capacity to be a good solvent for ions of salts is due to the dipolar
nature of water molecules. The positive ends of water molecules form
hydrogen bonds with anions, while the negative end of a water molecule can
form hydrogen bonds with a cation. Water molecules that surround ions in
this way form a hydration sphere around the ion, which keeps it in a
dissolved state.
2. At the time of the origin of life, earth’s atmosphere is thought to have
consisted primarily of methane and ammonia. Today’s atmosphere consists
primarily of nitrogen and oxygen.
3. Observations: The building blocks for organic molecules where present in
the hypothesized early atmosphere on earth.
, Hypothesis: Collections of individual atoms will form macromolecules if an
electrical spark is provided.
Deduction: Earth’s early reducing atmosphere could give rise to
macromolecules that support life.
Prediction: Given the correct building blocks and conditions,
macromolecules will form.
Data: After one week, 15% of the original carbon had been fixed into larger
molecules.
Controlled variables in this experiment include the concentration of the
chemicals, the apparatus, and the voltage used.
4. The Miller-Urey experiments suggest that the macromolecules that are
necessary to support life could have formed in earth’s early atmosphere.
5. Possible energy sources include lightning, ultraviolet light from the sun, and
energy from hydrothermal vents.
6. Organic molecules may have been concentrated in vesicles that formed as a
result of fatty acid and long chain alcohol aggregations.
7. Simple carbohydrates: glucose and fructose
Storage carbohydrates: sucrose and lactose
Structural carbohydrate: chitin
8. Lipids have low polarity, they do not form polymers, and they are insoluble
in water.
Carbohydrates have C:H:O as 1:2:1, they are water soluble, and they can form
polymers.
9. The primary level of protein structure is made up a series of amino acids that
are joined by peptide bonds.
The secondary level contains alpha helices and beta pleated sheets, which are
new configurations of the primary level of structure. The secondary level is
stabilized by hydrogen bonds.
The tertiary level is the result of bonds that form between amino acid side
chains. Bond types in this level include disulfide, ionic, hydrophobic, and
hydrogen bonds.
