Samenvatting Exploring Humans: philosophy of science
Introduction
Scientism = science is superior to all other attempts at gaining knowledge, its laws provide certainty.
Sceptics / post-modernists / relativists = opposing scientism.
Part 1: Philosophy of Knowledge
Chapter 1: Out of the cave: Rationalism and Empiricism
in Antiquity
1.1 Introduction
Rationalism = true knowledge about reality derives from reasoning/intellect. Based on Plato.
Empiricism = sensory experience as ultimate source of knowledge. Aristoteles.
1.2 Plato’s rationalism
Plato was a pupil of Socrates. Socrates : not knowing, use questions to get to the essence of things;
unique identifying properties.
Metaphysics = branch of philosophy that asks pre-eminent philosophical questions; why is there
something rather than nothing, what is the world made of? Vragen die sensorische waarneming
overstijgen.
Ontology (zijnsleer) = part of metaphysics, investigating questions about reality.
Heraclites ; essence of reality is change, reality flows; becoming.
Parmenides ; underlying the change, there is a permanent and unchanging reality.
Homo mensura = opinion is true to each person which he acquires through sensation. Truth is in the
eye of the beholder.
Plato argues that for knowledge we cannot appeal to the evidence of observation, given the
perpetual flux of reality. The real world cannot be the ever-changing world, but a supernatural realm
which contains the universal forms of everything.
Allegory of the cave ; prisoners in a cave seeing a projection/copy of real life on the wall; metaphor
for our limited sensory system. We only see imperfect copies of reality. We need to free ourselves
from our senses through ratio.
Nativism = human beings posses innate ideas/knowledge that we already posses at birth.
Plato believed in reincarnation and that we don’t learn new things, but remember knowledge we
already posses.
1.3 Aristotle’s empiricism
Empiricism = source of knowledge is sensory experience.
Universals do not transcend the world of sensory experience. Essence is in natural objects.
No inborn knowledge, all knowledge stems from experience (tabula rasa ; blank slate).
,(Plato!) Syllogism = deductive argument; A &B are premises, C conclusion;
A. All human beings are mortal
B. Socrates is a human being
C. > Socrates is mortal.
In deduction we move from a true law to a particular case.
Aristotle Induction = from observation of a particular case to universal laws. Black swan problem;
nooit zeker kunnen weten o.b.v. observatie.
Aristotle argues that it is our intuition and intellect that helps us to know something for sure based
on observations.
Aristotle associated with empiricism but he was not a radical empiricist, but partly rationalist.
Aristotle’s four types of causes:
Formal cause = shape/form
Material cause = material
Efficient cause = primary source of change or its absence
Final cause = goal for the sake of which something is done.
Chapter 2: Beyond the pillars of Hercules
Tussen de tijd van Aristoteles en Francis Bacon is weinig gebeurt.
2.2 The Aristotelian-medieval worldview
During Middle Ages the church was dominant.
According to Aristotle the cosmos consists of two worlds:
Superlunary /celestial = from the moon outward
Sublunary / terrestrial = between earth and moon.
Copernicus was the first to challenge the earth/human-centred worldview of the cosmos. Scientific
revolution challenged theological worldview.
2.3 Bacon’s new methodology
Francis Bacon contributed nothing directly to science, but inspired others. According to Bacon we
must purge the mind of four ‘idols’ (deceptions/errors):
Idols of the tribe = shared by all humans; bias, prone to mistakes
Idols of the cave = individual distortions due to character, upbringing etc.
Idols of the marketplace = distortions from language; words like ‘fortune’ represent things
that don’t really exist.
Idols of the theatre = accepted dogma’s and methods of schools of thought.
Until Bacon the deductive/syllogistic logic was dominant. Bacon questioned the truth of the
premises. Bacon was for empirical induction. Science is a combination of observation and reason.
2.4 The scientific revolution
Johannes Kepler concluded that planets orbit the sun in elliptical trajectories rather than perfect
circles.
, Galileo Galilei used telescope and discovered moons and information about planets.
Newton presented laws of motion and gravity.
2.5 Taking stock: the main characteristics of the scientific revolution
Characteristics of the Scientific revolution:
Empirical observation
Universal mechanics ; mechanization of the world, as if the world is one big machine.
Explanations are backward-looking ; to explain is to refer back to the cause/mechanism that
preceded it.
Universal mathematics ; mechanization comes with precise mathematical terms.
Entzauberung ; demystification of the world.
Chapter 3 Behind a Veil of Ideas: Rationalism and
Empiricism
3.2 René Descartes (rationalism)
René Descartes was a rationalist, but also did empirical work. Basing science on statements that are
known to be absolutely true.
Method of doubt = anything that can be doubted is uncertain and should not be regarded as
knowledge. Also doubting the senses and even mathematics.
I think therefore I am; only absolute certainty, because it’s clear and distinctly true.
Dualism ; Res extensa (body) and Res cogitans (mind).
Descartes also argued we have innate ideas, but that most ideas are not innate.
3.3 The British empiricists
3.3.1 John Locke
John Locke was an empiricist > blank slate, no innate knowledge, all knowledge comes from:
Sensations = senses give info to the mind from external world
Reflections = reflecting in the mind.
Three type of qualities of objects:
Primary qualities = qualities inherent in the object, even if there is no one to perceive it.
shape, weight etc.
Secondary qualities = mind-dependent, only exist when the object is perceived, ideas in
humans of color, sound, smell etc.
Tertiary qualities = power objects have to change another object so that it causes different
sensations. Sun and fire change other objects.
3.3.2 George Berkeley
George Berkeley argued that we can’t distinguish primary qualities from secondary qualities; even
primary qualities are dependent on the perceiver.
Esse est percipi = to be is to be perceived, everything exists only when perceived.
Introduction
Scientism = science is superior to all other attempts at gaining knowledge, its laws provide certainty.
Sceptics / post-modernists / relativists = opposing scientism.
Part 1: Philosophy of Knowledge
Chapter 1: Out of the cave: Rationalism and Empiricism
in Antiquity
1.1 Introduction
Rationalism = true knowledge about reality derives from reasoning/intellect. Based on Plato.
Empiricism = sensory experience as ultimate source of knowledge. Aristoteles.
1.2 Plato’s rationalism
Plato was a pupil of Socrates. Socrates : not knowing, use questions to get to the essence of things;
unique identifying properties.
Metaphysics = branch of philosophy that asks pre-eminent philosophical questions; why is there
something rather than nothing, what is the world made of? Vragen die sensorische waarneming
overstijgen.
Ontology (zijnsleer) = part of metaphysics, investigating questions about reality.
Heraclites ; essence of reality is change, reality flows; becoming.
Parmenides ; underlying the change, there is a permanent and unchanging reality.
Homo mensura = opinion is true to each person which he acquires through sensation. Truth is in the
eye of the beholder.
Plato argues that for knowledge we cannot appeal to the evidence of observation, given the
perpetual flux of reality. The real world cannot be the ever-changing world, but a supernatural realm
which contains the universal forms of everything.
Allegory of the cave ; prisoners in a cave seeing a projection/copy of real life on the wall; metaphor
for our limited sensory system. We only see imperfect copies of reality. We need to free ourselves
from our senses through ratio.
Nativism = human beings posses innate ideas/knowledge that we already posses at birth.
Plato believed in reincarnation and that we don’t learn new things, but remember knowledge we
already posses.
1.3 Aristotle’s empiricism
Empiricism = source of knowledge is sensory experience.
Universals do not transcend the world of sensory experience. Essence is in natural objects.
No inborn knowledge, all knowledge stems from experience (tabula rasa ; blank slate).
,(Plato!) Syllogism = deductive argument; A &B are premises, C conclusion;
A. All human beings are mortal
B. Socrates is a human being
C. > Socrates is mortal.
In deduction we move from a true law to a particular case.
Aristotle Induction = from observation of a particular case to universal laws. Black swan problem;
nooit zeker kunnen weten o.b.v. observatie.
Aristotle argues that it is our intuition and intellect that helps us to know something for sure based
on observations.
Aristotle associated with empiricism but he was not a radical empiricist, but partly rationalist.
Aristotle’s four types of causes:
Formal cause = shape/form
Material cause = material
Efficient cause = primary source of change or its absence
Final cause = goal for the sake of which something is done.
Chapter 2: Beyond the pillars of Hercules
Tussen de tijd van Aristoteles en Francis Bacon is weinig gebeurt.
2.2 The Aristotelian-medieval worldview
During Middle Ages the church was dominant.
According to Aristotle the cosmos consists of two worlds:
Superlunary /celestial = from the moon outward
Sublunary / terrestrial = between earth and moon.
Copernicus was the first to challenge the earth/human-centred worldview of the cosmos. Scientific
revolution challenged theological worldview.
2.3 Bacon’s new methodology
Francis Bacon contributed nothing directly to science, but inspired others. According to Bacon we
must purge the mind of four ‘idols’ (deceptions/errors):
Idols of the tribe = shared by all humans; bias, prone to mistakes
Idols of the cave = individual distortions due to character, upbringing etc.
Idols of the marketplace = distortions from language; words like ‘fortune’ represent things
that don’t really exist.
Idols of the theatre = accepted dogma’s and methods of schools of thought.
Until Bacon the deductive/syllogistic logic was dominant. Bacon questioned the truth of the
premises. Bacon was for empirical induction. Science is a combination of observation and reason.
2.4 The scientific revolution
Johannes Kepler concluded that planets orbit the sun in elliptical trajectories rather than perfect
circles.
, Galileo Galilei used telescope and discovered moons and information about planets.
Newton presented laws of motion and gravity.
2.5 Taking stock: the main characteristics of the scientific revolution
Characteristics of the Scientific revolution:
Empirical observation
Universal mechanics ; mechanization of the world, as if the world is one big machine.
Explanations are backward-looking ; to explain is to refer back to the cause/mechanism that
preceded it.
Universal mathematics ; mechanization comes with precise mathematical terms.
Entzauberung ; demystification of the world.
Chapter 3 Behind a Veil of Ideas: Rationalism and
Empiricism
3.2 René Descartes (rationalism)
René Descartes was a rationalist, but also did empirical work. Basing science on statements that are
known to be absolutely true.
Method of doubt = anything that can be doubted is uncertain and should not be regarded as
knowledge. Also doubting the senses and even mathematics.
I think therefore I am; only absolute certainty, because it’s clear and distinctly true.
Dualism ; Res extensa (body) and Res cogitans (mind).
Descartes also argued we have innate ideas, but that most ideas are not innate.
3.3 The British empiricists
3.3.1 John Locke
John Locke was an empiricist > blank slate, no innate knowledge, all knowledge comes from:
Sensations = senses give info to the mind from external world
Reflections = reflecting in the mind.
Three type of qualities of objects:
Primary qualities = qualities inherent in the object, even if there is no one to perceive it.
shape, weight etc.
Secondary qualities = mind-dependent, only exist when the object is perceived, ideas in
humans of color, sound, smell etc.
Tertiary qualities = power objects have to change another object so that it causes different
sensations. Sun and fire change other objects.
3.3.2 George Berkeley
George Berkeley argued that we can’t distinguish primary qualities from secondary qualities; even
primary qualities are dependent on the perceiver.
Esse est percipi = to be is to be perceived, everything exists only when perceived.
