PHILOSOPHY 114:
SECTION A
Notes by Layla
,TOPIC 1—HOW DO WE KNOW ANYTHING? 2
SKEPTICISM 2
EVERYDAY SKEPTCISM__________________________________________________________2
PHILOSOPHICAL SKEPTCISM _____________________________________________________2
RESPONSES TO SKEPTICISM 2
‘I THINK, THEREFORE I AM’ ______________________________________________________2
COMMON SENSE CLAIM _________________________________________________________3
ACCEPTING POSSIBILITY ________________________________________________________3
SO, WHAT IS REAL? 3
TOPIC 2 — IS EVERYTHING RELATIVE? 3
RELATIVISM 3
ARGUMENTS FOR RELATIVISM 4
ARGUMENTS AGAINST RELATIVISM 5
TOPIC 3 — CONSCIOUSNESS 5
DUALISM 6
MATERIALISM 6
KNOWLEDGE ARGUMENT AGAINST PHYSICALISM ________________________________6
CONSCIOUSNESS AND OTHER MINDS 7
CONSCIOUSNESS AND ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI) 7
TURING TEST ___________________________________________________________________7
CHINESE ROOM _________________________________________________________________7
TOPIC 4 — FREE WILL & RESPONSIBILITY 8
WHY IS FREE WILL SO IMPORTANT TO US? 8
DETERMINISM 8
INCOMPATIBILISM ______________________________________________________________8
CONSEQUENTIALISM ___________________________________________________________9
COMPATIBILISM ________________________________________________________________9
TOPIC 5 — JUSTICE 10
ULTIMATUM THEORY 10
INEQUALITY 10
CONTRACTARIONISM 11
SO, HOW SHOULD IT BE? 11
TOPIC 6 — THE MEANING OF LIFE 12
PESSIMIST PHILOSOPHIES OF LIFE 12
NIHILISM ______________________________________________________________________12
ARTHUR SCHOPENHAUER & PESSIMISM _________________________________________12
OPTIMIST PHILOSOPHIES OF LIFE 13
HEDONISM ____________________________________________________________________13
1
, TOPIC 1—HOW DO WE KNOW ANYTHING?
We all have knowledge that is based on evidence, perceptions, and personal experiences. We often
regard our perceptions of the truth as the actual truth.. but sometimes our perceptions of situations can
be misleading (ex: you sometimes you think you hear someone say your name even though no one has
said it).
If we’re relying on out perceptions and we know that they can sometimes be incorrect, then how do we
know the difference between what is real and what we perceive to be real? This is the question that
Skepticism raises.
SKEPTICISM
In a nutshell, skepticism is the claim that there is really nothing we can be sure of. Skepticism that the
only thing we can ever be sure of is whatever is in our mind, and therefore, there is always a possibility
that there may not be a reality outside of it.
There are various different explanations hypothesised by septics regarding what we perceive as the
external world then, ranging from beliefs that everything we are experiencing is simply a dream, or
everything we believe is being controlled by an evil force, or that we are living through a simulation.
Whichever way we look at it, though, nothing we do/investigate can prove these theories wrong because
even the simplest statements of knowledge are based on our understandings of the ‘external world’ and
our belief that it exists.
Two forms of skepticism to look at are (a) everyday skepticism, and (b) philosophical skepticism.
EVERYDAY SKEPTCISM
Everyday skepticism refers to the rejection of an orthodox or commonly held belief on the basis of
doubt. This doubt occurs over a subject matter which has a massive body of pre-existing knowledge and
background content and can be deflected or argued easily.
The main difference between everyday skepticism and philosophical skepticism is that, everyday
skepticism doubts can be confirmed or put to rest easily as long as the proper research is done and
discussed until a conclusion is reached.
PHILOSOPHICAL SKEPTCISM
Philosophical skepticism is not the rejection of the belief that the external world exists, but rather an
acknowledgment the possibility that what we believe may not actually be true or reflect reality. When
dealing with philosophical skepticism, there is no body of knowledge for us to refer to because it
questions the basis of everything we know including our experiences and perceptions.
Making any arguments against a skeptic would only lead to arguing in circles because for every point
that you make suggesting there is in fact an external world, the skeptic can use the same argument: there
is no way to find proof or evidence that there is an external world. Every statement of knowledge we
make is based on our experience of the so-called ‘external world’ and our belief that it exists.
RESPONSES TO SKEPTICISM
‘I THINK, THEREFORE I AM’
Cogito, ergo sum is a Latin philosophical theory by René Descartes usually translated into English as "I
think, therefore I am.” Essentially what it means is that even if the external world is not real— if I am a
2
SECTION A
Notes by Layla
,TOPIC 1—HOW DO WE KNOW ANYTHING? 2
SKEPTICISM 2
EVERYDAY SKEPTCISM__________________________________________________________2
PHILOSOPHICAL SKEPTCISM _____________________________________________________2
RESPONSES TO SKEPTICISM 2
‘I THINK, THEREFORE I AM’ ______________________________________________________2
COMMON SENSE CLAIM _________________________________________________________3
ACCEPTING POSSIBILITY ________________________________________________________3
SO, WHAT IS REAL? 3
TOPIC 2 — IS EVERYTHING RELATIVE? 3
RELATIVISM 3
ARGUMENTS FOR RELATIVISM 4
ARGUMENTS AGAINST RELATIVISM 5
TOPIC 3 — CONSCIOUSNESS 5
DUALISM 6
MATERIALISM 6
KNOWLEDGE ARGUMENT AGAINST PHYSICALISM ________________________________6
CONSCIOUSNESS AND OTHER MINDS 7
CONSCIOUSNESS AND ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI) 7
TURING TEST ___________________________________________________________________7
CHINESE ROOM _________________________________________________________________7
TOPIC 4 — FREE WILL & RESPONSIBILITY 8
WHY IS FREE WILL SO IMPORTANT TO US? 8
DETERMINISM 8
INCOMPATIBILISM ______________________________________________________________8
CONSEQUENTIALISM ___________________________________________________________9
COMPATIBILISM ________________________________________________________________9
TOPIC 5 — JUSTICE 10
ULTIMATUM THEORY 10
INEQUALITY 10
CONTRACTARIONISM 11
SO, HOW SHOULD IT BE? 11
TOPIC 6 — THE MEANING OF LIFE 12
PESSIMIST PHILOSOPHIES OF LIFE 12
NIHILISM ______________________________________________________________________12
ARTHUR SCHOPENHAUER & PESSIMISM _________________________________________12
OPTIMIST PHILOSOPHIES OF LIFE 13
HEDONISM ____________________________________________________________________13
1
, TOPIC 1—HOW DO WE KNOW ANYTHING?
We all have knowledge that is based on evidence, perceptions, and personal experiences. We often
regard our perceptions of the truth as the actual truth.. but sometimes our perceptions of situations can
be misleading (ex: you sometimes you think you hear someone say your name even though no one has
said it).
If we’re relying on out perceptions and we know that they can sometimes be incorrect, then how do we
know the difference between what is real and what we perceive to be real? This is the question that
Skepticism raises.
SKEPTICISM
In a nutshell, skepticism is the claim that there is really nothing we can be sure of. Skepticism that the
only thing we can ever be sure of is whatever is in our mind, and therefore, there is always a possibility
that there may not be a reality outside of it.
There are various different explanations hypothesised by septics regarding what we perceive as the
external world then, ranging from beliefs that everything we are experiencing is simply a dream, or
everything we believe is being controlled by an evil force, or that we are living through a simulation.
Whichever way we look at it, though, nothing we do/investigate can prove these theories wrong because
even the simplest statements of knowledge are based on our understandings of the ‘external world’ and
our belief that it exists.
Two forms of skepticism to look at are (a) everyday skepticism, and (b) philosophical skepticism.
EVERYDAY SKEPTCISM
Everyday skepticism refers to the rejection of an orthodox or commonly held belief on the basis of
doubt. This doubt occurs over a subject matter which has a massive body of pre-existing knowledge and
background content and can be deflected or argued easily.
The main difference between everyday skepticism and philosophical skepticism is that, everyday
skepticism doubts can be confirmed or put to rest easily as long as the proper research is done and
discussed until a conclusion is reached.
PHILOSOPHICAL SKEPTCISM
Philosophical skepticism is not the rejection of the belief that the external world exists, but rather an
acknowledgment the possibility that what we believe may not actually be true or reflect reality. When
dealing with philosophical skepticism, there is no body of knowledge for us to refer to because it
questions the basis of everything we know including our experiences and perceptions.
Making any arguments against a skeptic would only lead to arguing in circles because for every point
that you make suggesting there is in fact an external world, the skeptic can use the same argument: there
is no way to find proof or evidence that there is an external world. Every statement of knowledge we
make is based on our experience of the so-called ‘external world’ and our belief that it exists.
RESPONSES TO SKEPTICISM
‘I THINK, THEREFORE I AM’
Cogito, ergo sum is a Latin philosophical theory by René Descartes usually translated into English as "I
think, therefore I am.” Essentially what it means is that even if the external world is not real— if I am a
2
