Cross-Cultural Psychology
Chapter 1: Understanding Cross-Cultural Psychology
Therapeutic methods might work for some, but not all cultures or groups. There are many
differences between cultures and groups, but how significant are these differences? And on
what grounds?
Most research, 90%, is based on only 12% of the world’s population. This is due to language
barriers and distance for example. Some groups (students) are easier to reach.
What is cross-cultural psychology?
It is the critical and comparative study of cultural effects on human psychology. As a
comparative field, cross-cultural psychology draws its conclusions from at least 2 samples
that represent at least 2 cultural groups. The act of comparison requires a particular set of
critical thinking skills.
Where we grow up and with whom, affects how we act later in life. This, in turn, affects our
thoughts and needs.
What differences there are and why they’re here, is important for this field. However, this field
also tries to find similarities and commonalties for everyone (Big 5 traits).
The difference with cultural psychology is that they seek to discover meaningful links
between a culture and the psychology of individuals living in that culture, instead of the
comparison of different cultures.
Basic definitions:
Culture
This is a set of attitudes, behaviors and symbols shared by a large group of people and
usually communicated from one generation to the next:
Attitudes: beliefs, values, general knowledge, opinions, stereotypes
Behaviors: norms, roles, customs, fashions.
Symbols: things or ideas with a specific meaning for that group
Cultures have 2 types of characteristics:
Explicit those that are observable, like practices, typical behavioral responses etc.
Implicit organizing principles behind those regularities (grammar)
No society is culturally homogeneous. There are no cultures that are either entirely similar or
completely different. Within the same cultural cluster, there can be significant variations,
inconsistencies and dissimilarities.
Society, race, ethnicity
Society group of people
Culture shared way of interaction between these people
Race a group of people distinguishable by certain similar and genetically transmitted
physical characteristics. However, this is always about averages. Races can overlap. In the
past, geographical factors also played a role. Not now. It’s a socially constructed category
Ethnicity cultural heritage, the experience shared by people who have a common
ancestral origin, language, traditions etc.
Nation a group of people who share common geographical origin, history and language
and are unified as a political entity.
Religion affiliation one’s acceptance of knowledge, beliefs and practices related to a
specific faith. The numbers for this have changed a lot over the years.
Knowledge in cross-cultural psychology
At least 4 types of knowledge about psychology can be recognized:
Scientific knowledge. Observations, measurements, etc.
Folk (popular) theories. Popular beliefs/superstitions. For the people, by the people.
Ideological (value-based) knowledge. Right or wrong, purpose of life.
Legal knowledge. Laws, death, child education, abortion.
It is critical for cross-cultural psychologists to treat all types of knowledge with sensitivity,
understanding and respect.
,Cultural traditionalism
Traditional cultures Nontraditional cultures
Most social roles are prescribed to Most social roles are achieved by
individuals individuals
In evaluations of individual behavior, the In evaluations of individual behavior, the
emphasis is placed on custom and routine emphasis is placed on individual choice
There is a clear distinction between good The distinction between good and evil in
and evil in human behavior human behavior is relative
Truth is not debatable; it is established and Truth is revealed through the competition of
doesn’t change. ideas
One’s choices are restricted to the One’s choices aren’t strongly restricted to
boundaries of social prescriptions the boundaries of social prescriptions.
(homosexual behavior)
Old New
Boundaries and restricted Dynamic
Empirical examination of culture
Cross-cultural psychologists establish and conceptualize the main culture’s features in terms
of cultural dichotomies (or polarities). (Hofstede!!) Among such dichotomies are:
- High- vs. low-power distance
The extent to which the members of a society accept that power is unequal.
- High- vs. low-uncertainty avoidance
The degree to which the members of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty.
Low usually equals traditional cultures.
- Masculinity vs. femininity
Masculinity is the extent to which society will be driven by competition/ achievement
- Collectivism vs. individualism.
Group vs. individual.
Collectivism and individualism: further research
This research was done by Triandis, who wanted to look at the vertical and horizontal
dimensions:
- Vertical collectivism includes perceiving the self as a part (or an aspect) of a
collective and accepting inequalities within the collective
Latin America, China, Korea, Japan, Italy, Spain
- Horizontal collectivism includes perceiving the self as a part of the collective, but
seeing all members of the collective as the same: thus, equality is stressed
- Vertical individualism includes the conception of an autonomous individual and
acceptive of inequality
US, Canada, Great Britain, France
- Horizontal individualism includes the conception of an autonomous individual and
emphasis on equality.
Australia, New Zealand, Norway, Iceland.
So, horizontal equals equality and vertical equals ranks but freedom.
Fijneman also did an experiment on this, and because of this the words independence and
interdependence became used a lot.
So, that is the difference between doing things yourself, and expecting others to do this as
well (independence) and the expectation of help + helping others.
Cultural syndromes
This principle was also broad about by Triandis. He believed this was a combination of
cultural characteristics that help us understand how some people organize their lives.
Examples are tightness between people, honor, familism (family orientation) and activity vs.
passivity.
A theory is scientific when it is falsifiable. Many approaches are used:
,The natural science approach
Cross-cultural psychology relies on science, social sciences and the humanities.
Natural scientists are concerned with the description, prediction and understanding of natural
phenomena. For cross-cultural psychology, cognitive neuroscience has special importance. It
examines the brain mechanisms supporting one’s mental functions.
Another important part of this field are genetics.
Evolutionary scientists (Darwin) explore the ways in which biological factors affect human
behavior and thus lay a natural foundation for human culture.
For the latest, Darwin’s start was important, survival of the fittest, good features, etc.
Natural selection, however, includes, of course, fitness and the ability to compete, but also
genetic diversity or variety.
The social science approach
Sociologists focus on broad social structures that influence society as a whole and,
subsequently, its individuals. There are particular social forces that shape the behavior of
large social groups, and human beings develop and adjust their individual responses in
accordance to the demands and pressures of society.
Important fields in this approach are:
- Anthropology (study of humankind)
- Economics (production, distribution, consumption)
- Sociology (society and social actions)
The humanities approach
They study human culture. They speculate a lot and they are critical. They also have an
historical element: humanist tradition, which emphasizes the subjective side of the
individual, like freedom and creativity.
The ecocultural approach
According to an ecocultural approach to cross-cultural psychology, individuals cannot be
separated from their environmental context. People constantly interact with the environment,
thus transforming both it and themselves.
This approach is a mixture of:
- Ecological context
Economic activity of the population
- Sociopolitical context
Extent to which people participate in decisions.
Both are important influences (John Berry).
The cultural mixtures approach
According to a cultural mixtures approach, researchers should switch their attention from
traditional views on culture to new cultural mixtures, contact zones, interconnected systems
and multiple cultural identities.
This approach is about the fact that cultures aren’t static: they change, move and mix
together. People can ‘choose’ their culture.
They have 3 views on how local cultures will respond to globalization:
1) It will lead to the weakening of local cultures new international cultures
2) It will pull cultures further apart by fear
3) It will only make a difference for half of the world’s population. Those that have
access to technology and can travel.
The integrative approach: a summary
An integrative approach to cross-cultural psychology emphasizes human activity, a process
of individual’s goal-directed interaction with the environment. Human motivation, emotion,
thought and reactions cannot be separated from human activity, which 1) is determined by
individual, socioeconomic, environmental, political and cultural conditions and also 2)
changes these conditions. Two factors – availability of and access to resources – largely
determine the type, scope and direction of human activities.
, Indigenous psychology
Indigenous theories are characterized by the use of conceptions and methodologies
associated exclusively with the cultural group under investigation. Indigenous psychology is
the scientific study of human behavior or the mind and is designed for a native people, not
transported from other regions.
Indigenous groups are very traditional, with a preserved way of living.
Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is the view that involves judgement about other ethnic, national, and cultural
groups and events from the observer’s own ethnic, national or cultural group’s outlook.
Multiculturalism
Multiculturalism is a view that encourages the recognition of equality for all cultural and
national groups and promotes the idea that various cultural groups have the right to follow
their own unique paths of development and have their own unique activities, values and
norms.
Lecture:
How can we conceptualize culture?
- Culture as independent variable
Certain factors vary with culture and influence psychological phenomena
(Optic illusions)
- Culture as confounding variable
Psychological phenomena are supposed to be universal
(Piaget’s theory of cognitive phenomena)
- Culture as genuine psychological phenomena
Every psychological phenomenon takes place in a cultural context, culture is inside
one’s head (Vygotsky; indigenous psychology)
- Culture as a placeholder, a handle
Specific contextual differences instead of large, overarching differences
Ecological fallacy derive the idea of what an individual is like, from what a random
American would be like. National level of analysis.
Level of analysis:
- Individual
- Group
- Collective
At what level do you look at a problem/ concept/ etc.
Chapter 1: Understanding Cross-Cultural Psychology
Therapeutic methods might work for some, but not all cultures or groups. There are many
differences between cultures and groups, but how significant are these differences? And on
what grounds?
Most research, 90%, is based on only 12% of the world’s population. This is due to language
barriers and distance for example. Some groups (students) are easier to reach.
What is cross-cultural psychology?
It is the critical and comparative study of cultural effects on human psychology. As a
comparative field, cross-cultural psychology draws its conclusions from at least 2 samples
that represent at least 2 cultural groups. The act of comparison requires a particular set of
critical thinking skills.
Where we grow up and with whom, affects how we act later in life. This, in turn, affects our
thoughts and needs.
What differences there are and why they’re here, is important for this field. However, this field
also tries to find similarities and commonalties for everyone (Big 5 traits).
The difference with cultural psychology is that they seek to discover meaningful links
between a culture and the psychology of individuals living in that culture, instead of the
comparison of different cultures.
Basic definitions:
Culture
This is a set of attitudes, behaviors and symbols shared by a large group of people and
usually communicated from one generation to the next:
Attitudes: beliefs, values, general knowledge, opinions, stereotypes
Behaviors: norms, roles, customs, fashions.
Symbols: things or ideas with a specific meaning for that group
Cultures have 2 types of characteristics:
Explicit those that are observable, like practices, typical behavioral responses etc.
Implicit organizing principles behind those regularities (grammar)
No society is culturally homogeneous. There are no cultures that are either entirely similar or
completely different. Within the same cultural cluster, there can be significant variations,
inconsistencies and dissimilarities.
Society, race, ethnicity
Society group of people
Culture shared way of interaction between these people
Race a group of people distinguishable by certain similar and genetically transmitted
physical characteristics. However, this is always about averages. Races can overlap. In the
past, geographical factors also played a role. Not now. It’s a socially constructed category
Ethnicity cultural heritage, the experience shared by people who have a common
ancestral origin, language, traditions etc.
Nation a group of people who share common geographical origin, history and language
and are unified as a political entity.
Religion affiliation one’s acceptance of knowledge, beliefs and practices related to a
specific faith. The numbers for this have changed a lot over the years.
Knowledge in cross-cultural psychology
At least 4 types of knowledge about psychology can be recognized:
Scientific knowledge. Observations, measurements, etc.
Folk (popular) theories. Popular beliefs/superstitions. For the people, by the people.
Ideological (value-based) knowledge. Right or wrong, purpose of life.
Legal knowledge. Laws, death, child education, abortion.
It is critical for cross-cultural psychologists to treat all types of knowledge with sensitivity,
understanding and respect.
,Cultural traditionalism
Traditional cultures Nontraditional cultures
Most social roles are prescribed to Most social roles are achieved by
individuals individuals
In evaluations of individual behavior, the In evaluations of individual behavior, the
emphasis is placed on custom and routine emphasis is placed on individual choice
There is a clear distinction between good The distinction between good and evil in
and evil in human behavior human behavior is relative
Truth is not debatable; it is established and Truth is revealed through the competition of
doesn’t change. ideas
One’s choices are restricted to the One’s choices aren’t strongly restricted to
boundaries of social prescriptions the boundaries of social prescriptions.
(homosexual behavior)
Old New
Boundaries and restricted Dynamic
Empirical examination of culture
Cross-cultural psychologists establish and conceptualize the main culture’s features in terms
of cultural dichotomies (or polarities). (Hofstede!!) Among such dichotomies are:
- High- vs. low-power distance
The extent to which the members of a society accept that power is unequal.
- High- vs. low-uncertainty avoidance
The degree to which the members of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty.
Low usually equals traditional cultures.
- Masculinity vs. femininity
Masculinity is the extent to which society will be driven by competition/ achievement
- Collectivism vs. individualism.
Group vs. individual.
Collectivism and individualism: further research
This research was done by Triandis, who wanted to look at the vertical and horizontal
dimensions:
- Vertical collectivism includes perceiving the self as a part (or an aspect) of a
collective and accepting inequalities within the collective
Latin America, China, Korea, Japan, Italy, Spain
- Horizontal collectivism includes perceiving the self as a part of the collective, but
seeing all members of the collective as the same: thus, equality is stressed
- Vertical individualism includes the conception of an autonomous individual and
acceptive of inequality
US, Canada, Great Britain, France
- Horizontal individualism includes the conception of an autonomous individual and
emphasis on equality.
Australia, New Zealand, Norway, Iceland.
So, horizontal equals equality and vertical equals ranks but freedom.
Fijneman also did an experiment on this, and because of this the words independence and
interdependence became used a lot.
So, that is the difference between doing things yourself, and expecting others to do this as
well (independence) and the expectation of help + helping others.
Cultural syndromes
This principle was also broad about by Triandis. He believed this was a combination of
cultural characteristics that help us understand how some people organize their lives.
Examples are tightness between people, honor, familism (family orientation) and activity vs.
passivity.
A theory is scientific when it is falsifiable. Many approaches are used:
,The natural science approach
Cross-cultural psychology relies on science, social sciences and the humanities.
Natural scientists are concerned with the description, prediction and understanding of natural
phenomena. For cross-cultural psychology, cognitive neuroscience has special importance. It
examines the brain mechanisms supporting one’s mental functions.
Another important part of this field are genetics.
Evolutionary scientists (Darwin) explore the ways in which biological factors affect human
behavior and thus lay a natural foundation for human culture.
For the latest, Darwin’s start was important, survival of the fittest, good features, etc.
Natural selection, however, includes, of course, fitness and the ability to compete, but also
genetic diversity or variety.
The social science approach
Sociologists focus on broad social structures that influence society as a whole and,
subsequently, its individuals. There are particular social forces that shape the behavior of
large social groups, and human beings develop and adjust their individual responses in
accordance to the demands and pressures of society.
Important fields in this approach are:
- Anthropology (study of humankind)
- Economics (production, distribution, consumption)
- Sociology (society and social actions)
The humanities approach
They study human culture. They speculate a lot and they are critical. They also have an
historical element: humanist tradition, which emphasizes the subjective side of the
individual, like freedom and creativity.
The ecocultural approach
According to an ecocultural approach to cross-cultural psychology, individuals cannot be
separated from their environmental context. People constantly interact with the environment,
thus transforming both it and themselves.
This approach is a mixture of:
- Ecological context
Economic activity of the population
- Sociopolitical context
Extent to which people participate in decisions.
Both are important influences (John Berry).
The cultural mixtures approach
According to a cultural mixtures approach, researchers should switch their attention from
traditional views on culture to new cultural mixtures, contact zones, interconnected systems
and multiple cultural identities.
This approach is about the fact that cultures aren’t static: they change, move and mix
together. People can ‘choose’ their culture.
They have 3 views on how local cultures will respond to globalization:
1) It will lead to the weakening of local cultures new international cultures
2) It will pull cultures further apart by fear
3) It will only make a difference for half of the world’s population. Those that have
access to technology and can travel.
The integrative approach: a summary
An integrative approach to cross-cultural psychology emphasizes human activity, a process
of individual’s goal-directed interaction with the environment. Human motivation, emotion,
thought and reactions cannot be separated from human activity, which 1) is determined by
individual, socioeconomic, environmental, political and cultural conditions and also 2)
changes these conditions. Two factors – availability of and access to resources – largely
determine the type, scope and direction of human activities.
, Indigenous psychology
Indigenous theories are characterized by the use of conceptions and methodologies
associated exclusively with the cultural group under investigation. Indigenous psychology is
the scientific study of human behavior or the mind and is designed for a native people, not
transported from other regions.
Indigenous groups are very traditional, with a preserved way of living.
Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is the view that involves judgement about other ethnic, national, and cultural
groups and events from the observer’s own ethnic, national or cultural group’s outlook.
Multiculturalism
Multiculturalism is a view that encourages the recognition of equality for all cultural and
national groups and promotes the idea that various cultural groups have the right to follow
their own unique paths of development and have their own unique activities, values and
norms.
Lecture:
How can we conceptualize culture?
- Culture as independent variable
Certain factors vary with culture and influence psychological phenomena
(Optic illusions)
- Culture as confounding variable
Psychological phenomena are supposed to be universal
(Piaget’s theory of cognitive phenomena)
- Culture as genuine psychological phenomena
Every psychological phenomenon takes place in a cultural context, culture is inside
one’s head (Vygotsky; indigenous psychology)
- Culture as a placeholder, a handle
Specific contextual differences instead of large, overarching differences
Ecological fallacy derive the idea of what an individual is like, from what a random
American would be like. National level of analysis.
Level of analysis:
- Individual
- Group
- Collective
At what level do you look at a problem/ concept/ etc.
