Psychology of language elective
Chapter 1 and 2
Productivity The ability to use known symbols or linguistic units in new combinations to
communicate ideas.
Nativist view The view that not only are humans genetically programmed to have a general
capacity for language, particular aspects of language ability are also genetically specified.
There is no scientific agreement whether language is unique to humans. Also depends
on what is meant with ‘language’.
Nativism vs anti-nativsm.
Anti-nativist view The view that the ability of humans to learn language is not the result of a
genetically programmed “language template” but is an aspect (or by-product) of our extensive
cognitive abilities, including general abilities of learning and memory.
Humans vs. apes:
Humans experiment and innovate – apes copy;
Universal acquisition in humans – variable acquisition in apes;
Children babble – apes don’t;
Grammar becomes more complex for humans – not the case for apes;
Humans apply grammatical rules consistently – apes inconsistently;
Humans use words to comment and express intentions – apes use gestures;
Apes interrupt far more than humans.
Can apes learn human language?
Yes, if you limit it to:
The here and now;
Little or no syntax;
Explicitly taught material;
Do not use questions;
And exclude the ability to reject bad sentences (reflexiveness).
Critical notes on animal studies
Behavior =/ knowledge;
Absence of behavior =/ absence of knowledge;
More evidence on human-like-non-language behavior in animals.
Evolutionary adaptation A genetically transmitted trait that gives its bearers an advantage—
specifically, it helps those with the trait to stay alive long enough to reproduce and/or to have
many offspring.
Joint attention The awareness between two or more individuals that they are paying attention
to the same thing.
Syntax In a given language, the set of “rules” that specify how meaningful linguistic elements
are put together so that their meaning can be clearly understood
Recursive Rules that operate at this level of abstraction
Universal grammar An innately understood system of combining linguistic units that
constrains the structural patterns of all human languages.
Affective pathway Sound production (vocalizations) arising from states of arousal, emotion,
and motivation. Affective sound production is innate, doesn’t require learning, and is generally
inflexible.
Cognitive pathway Controlled, highly malleable sound production that requires extensive
auditory learning and practice. Includes human language sounds and some birdsong.
,Homesign A personal communication system initiated by a deaf person to communicate
through gestures with others who, like the deaf person, do not know sign language.
Linguistic code The system of symbols and combinatory rules that are conventionally agreed
upon by a community of language users as conveying specific meanings. Often, the linguistic
code is not enough to fully convey the speaker’s intended meaning, so that hearers must
augment the linguistic code with inferences based on the context.
Sensitive period A window of time during which a specific type of learning (such as learning
language) takes place more easily than at any other time.
Double dissociation Neuropsychological evidence for the independence of two mental
processes; it comes from observing cases where the first process is impaired but the second is
spared, and conversely, where the second process is impaired but the first is spared.
Are humans hardwired for language?
Double dissociation: poor/strong language ability and poor/strong cognitive abilities
Domain-general vs. domain-specific perspective
Default: general cognitive abilities until proven otherwise
Language ability
Cognitive ability Good Poor
Good Normally developing people Specific Language
Impairment?
Brother John?
Poor Williams Syndrome? Down syndrome?
Linguistic Savants?
Williams syndrome (WMS) A genetic syndrome of particular interest to language researchers,
in which language function appears to be relatively preserved despite more serious
impairments in other areas of cognitive function.
Mental age A person’s overall level of cognitive functioning related to the chronological age of a
person with typical development.
Specific language impairment (SLI) A disorder in which children fail to develop language
normally even though there are no apparent neurological damage or disorders, no general
cognitive impairment or delay, no hearing loss, and no abnormal home environment that would
explain this failure.
Domain-specific perspective In regard to specific language impairment, the view that the
linguistic deficit strikes at mechanisms that are particular to language, rather than mechanisms
that are shared with other cognitive abilities.
Domain-general perspective In regard to specific language impairment, the view that the
linguistic deficit is only one effect of more general cognitive problems that also affect non-
linguistic processes.
Cultural transmission view of language change The notion that languages change over time
to adapt to the human mind, with all the constraints, limitations, and abilities that human minds
bring to the task of learning or using language. This view stands in contrast to the nativist view,
which holds that the human mind has changed over time because it has become adapted for the
requirements of language.
Design features by Hockett:
● Vocal auditory channel;
, ● Rapid fading; Channel of communication
● Broadcast transmission;
● Specialization;
● Total feedback;
● Traditional transmission;
● Interchangeability; Interactive aspect of language
● Learnability;
● Productivity;
● Semanticity;
● Arbitrariness;
● Discreteness;
Content and structure of a language
● Displacement;
● Prevarication;
● Duality of patterning;
● Reflexiveness;
▪ Intended as an anti-nativist view, characteristics all humans share.
▪ Traditional transmission and learnability are not unique to language.
Development of language:
It is unknown how, when and where language existed.
It is unknown if there is one language where all languages originated from.
It is known that languages change, not in a completely random manner
Semantic transparency decreases;
Complexity increases AND decreases;
‘economy’ push and pull factors for speakers and listeners;
Cultural factors are reflected in language change.
It is known that when people come together and there is no language yet, they will
create one.
Pidgins and creoles;
Homesign -> sign languages.
Evidences that perhaps humans ARE hardwired for language:
Communicative urge;
Joint attention;
Theory of mind;
Social beings in a complex community.
Chapter 3 Language and the brain
Neurolinguistics those who study how the physical brain relates to language behavior
Cerebral cortex The outer covering of the brain’s cerebral hemispheres.
Chapter 1 and 2
Productivity The ability to use known symbols or linguistic units in new combinations to
communicate ideas.
Nativist view The view that not only are humans genetically programmed to have a general
capacity for language, particular aspects of language ability are also genetically specified.
There is no scientific agreement whether language is unique to humans. Also depends
on what is meant with ‘language’.
Nativism vs anti-nativsm.
Anti-nativist view The view that the ability of humans to learn language is not the result of a
genetically programmed “language template” but is an aspect (or by-product) of our extensive
cognitive abilities, including general abilities of learning and memory.
Humans vs. apes:
Humans experiment and innovate – apes copy;
Universal acquisition in humans – variable acquisition in apes;
Children babble – apes don’t;
Grammar becomes more complex for humans – not the case for apes;
Humans apply grammatical rules consistently – apes inconsistently;
Humans use words to comment and express intentions – apes use gestures;
Apes interrupt far more than humans.
Can apes learn human language?
Yes, if you limit it to:
The here and now;
Little or no syntax;
Explicitly taught material;
Do not use questions;
And exclude the ability to reject bad sentences (reflexiveness).
Critical notes on animal studies
Behavior =/ knowledge;
Absence of behavior =/ absence of knowledge;
More evidence on human-like-non-language behavior in animals.
Evolutionary adaptation A genetically transmitted trait that gives its bearers an advantage—
specifically, it helps those with the trait to stay alive long enough to reproduce and/or to have
many offspring.
Joint attention The awareness between two or more individuals that they are paying attention
to the same thing.
Syntax In a given language, the set of “rules” that specify how meaningful linguistic elements
are put together so that their meaning can be clearly understood
Recursive Rules that operate at this level of abstraction
Universal grammar An innately understood system of combining linguistic units that
constrains the structural patterns of all human languages.
Affective pathway Sound production (vocalizations) arising from states of arousal, emotion,
and motivation. Affective sound production is innate, doesn’t require learning, and is generally
inflexible.
Cognitive pathway Controlled, highly malleable sound production that requires extensive
auditory learning and practice. Includes human language sounds and some birdsong.
,Homesign A personal communication system initiated by a deaf person to communicate
through gestures with others who, like the deaf person, do not know sign language.
Linguistic code The system of symbols and combinatory rules that are conventionally agreed
upon by a community of language users as conveying specific meanings. Often, the linguistic
code is not enough to fully convey the speaker’s intended meaning, so that hearers must
augment the linguistic code with inferences based on the context.
Sensitive period A window of time during which a specific type of learning (such as learning
language) takes place more easily than at any other time.
Double dissociation Neuropsychological evidence for the independence of two mental
processes; it comes from observing cases where the first process is impaired but the second is
spared, and conversely, where the second process is impaired but the first is spared.
Are humans hardwired for language?
Double dissociation: poor/strong language ability and poor/strong cognitive abilities
Domain-general vs. domain-specific perspective
Default: general cognitive abilities until proven otherwise
Language ability
Cognitive ability Good Poor
Good Normally developing people Specific Language
Impairment?
Brother John?
Poor Williams Syndrome? Down syndrome?
Linguistic Savants?
Williams syndrome (WMS) A genetic syndrome of particular interest to language researchers,
in which language function appears to be relatively preserved despite more serious
impairments in other areas of cognitive function.
Mental age A person’s overall level of cognitive functioning related to the chronological age of a
person with typical development.
Specific language impairment (SLI) A disorder in which children fail to develop language
normally even though there are no apparent neurological damage or disorders, no general
cognitive impairment or delay, no hearing loss, and no abnormal home environment that would
explain this failure.
Domain-specific perspective In regard to specific language impairment, the view that the
linguistic deficit strikes at mechanisms that are particular to language, rather than mechanisms
that are shared with other cognitive abilities.
Domain-general perspective In regard to specific language impairment, the view that the
linguistic deficit is only one effect of more general cognitive problems that also affect non-
linguistic processes.
Cultural transmission view of language change The notion that languages change over time
to adapt to the human mind, with all the constraints, limitations, and abilities that human minds
bring to the task of learning or using language. This view stands in contrast to the nativist view,
which holds that the human mind has changed over time because it has become adapted for the
requirements of language.
Design features by Hockett:
● Vocal auditory channel;
, ● Rapid fading; Channel of communication
● Broadcast transmission;
● Specialization;
● Total feedback;
● Traditional transmission;
● Interchangeability; Interactive aspect of language
● Learnability;
● Productivity;
● Semanticity;
● Arbitrariness;
● Discreteness;
Content and structure of a language
● Displacement;
● Prevarication;
● Duality of patterning;
● Reflexiveness;
▪ Intended as an anti-nativist view, characteristics all humans share.
▪ Traditional transmission and learnability are not unique to language.
Development of language:
It is unknown how, when and where language existed.
It is unknown if there is one language where all languages originated from.
It is known that languages change, not in a completely random manner
Semantic transparency decreases;
Complexity increases AND decreases;
‘economy’ push and pull factors for speakers and listeners;
Cultural factors are reflected in language change.
It is known that when people come together and there is no language yet, they will
create one.
Pidgins and creoles;
Homesign -> sign languages.
Evidences that perhaps humans ARE hardwired for language:
Communicative urge;
Joint attention;
Theory of mind;
Social beings in a complex community.
Chapter 3 Language and the brain
Neurolinguistics those who study how the physical brain relates to language behavior
Cerebral cortex The outer covering of the brain’s cerebral hemispheres.
