THEME 1: THE EVOLUTION, DEVELOPMENT
& APPLICATION OF CRIME PREVENTION
APPROACHES, MODELS AND STRUCTURES
1. PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF CRIME
Crime prevention: all measures taken by way of government policy and private initiative to
prevent crime, with the exception of the criminal justice system.
Crime prevention models are usually based on specific theories or factors of crime that may
have played a part in the commission of crime or victimization, while programs have no
theoretical basis.
1971: USA established the National Crime Prevention Institute under the auspices of the Law
Enforcement Assistance Administration in the Department of Justice. Federal government
took charge of NCPI in 1986 to involve communities in crime prevention.
England:
o Local crime prevention panels existed from 1966.
o 1975: Home Office Committee on Crime Prevention.
o 1983: establishment of the Home Office Crime Prevention Centre and the Research
and Planning Unit.
France: prevention councils have been operating at local, regional and national levels since
1983.
Sweden and Denmark: national crime prevention councils since late 1970s.
SA: National Crime Prevention Policy – 22 May 1996. Advocates an integrated,
multidimensional crime prevention model for interdepartmental cooperation at central,
regional and local authority levels. Four pillars:
o The reduction of crime through effective environmental planning and design focusing
on designing systems to reduce the opportunity for crime and increase the ease of
detection and identification of criminals.
o The enhancement of community values and campaigns to educate the community
aimed at changing the way communities react to crime and violence. It involves
programs that make use of public education and information to facilitate meaningful
citizen participation in crime prevention.
o Transnational crime prevention for the specific purpose of crime across the borders.
o An effective and integrated criminal justice system. It must provide a sure, clear
deterrent for criminals and reduce the risks of reoffending.
Factors crucial to successful crime prevention:
o State and community involvement in implementing a comprehensive crime
prevention policy.
o A multidimensional crime prevention approach, which incorporates a number of
crime prevention models and their programs.
o Crime prevention models and programs based on causation theories and factors
which may be operative in crime and victimization.
, o Attention to the uniqueness of crime patterns and causes peculiar to a country or
neighbourhood.
o Proper planning and the evaluation of crime prevention programs (which must also
be cost-effective).
Crime prevention approaches:
o Social crime prevention model (by Graham):
Socioeconomic structures/systems (families, schools, churches, recreational
facilities, jobs) are important socialization structures.
Shortcomings in these structures may contribute to crime.
Social crime prevention programs are therefore designed to help vulnerable
groups, and to eradicate poor socioeconomic conditions and social
inequalities.
o Limiting opportunities for crime model:
Focus on potential victims, community and the physical environment.
Includes effective urban and environmental planning; publicity campaigns
aimed at making people more security conscious; target reinforcement; CCTV.
Successful in preventing crimes against property and people (robbery,
pickpocketing).
o Community-based crime prevention model:
Make offenders aware of the risk of being caught in specific neighbourhoods.
Examples: neighbourhood watches, safe houses, etc.
Successful in preventing robbery, pickpocketing, burglary, crimes against
property and car theft.
o Biophysical prevention model:
Early identification and treatment (esp. in children) may play an important role
in preventing crime.
Examples: vitamin supplements, diet adjustments, medication, therapy.
o Psychological prevention model
Focus on inner psychological needs and disorders that may give rise to criminal
behaviour.
Interpersonal problems and poor communication, particularly within the family,
may contribute to criminal behaviour.
Psychological treatments: psychological tests, psychotherapy, social casework.
o Integrated crime prevention models
Prevention of specific crime:
A number of factors are seen as contributing to the particular crime.
These factors are treated using appropriate crime prevention programs.
Examples: rehabilitation, training in family and social skills, psychological
treatment, techniques for coping with frustration and assistance with
finding employment.
Crime prevention and control by means of the criminal justice system:
Law regulates human behaviour and must, therefore, be just.
o Successful programmes:
Sherman, Gottfredson, MacKenzie, Eck, Reuter and Bushway found that the
following worked well in USA:
Regular home visits by nurses and other professionals, and weekly home
visits by teachers of preschool children to combat child abuse.
, Family therapy and parental guidance for families with at-risk youths and
adolescents.
School programs, such as innovative development programs, the
reinforcement of accepted norms and education in social skills.
Trade apprenticeships for former offenders.
Increased policing of crime risk areas.
Monitoring and detaining high-risk recidivists.
Arresting professional men who abuse their families.
Rehab for convicted offenders aimed at risk treatment.
Therapeutic community treatment programmes for drug users in prisons.
2. PROPERTY CRIMES 1: SHOP THEFT AND EMPLOYEE THEFT
Property crime is an umbrella term for crimes that are committed with fiscal gain as the
primary motive.
Includes fraud, shop theft, employee theft, common theft, vehicle theft, theft out of vehicles,
computer theft, stock theft, burglary, arson and vandalism.
Malicious shrinkage: an umbrella term relating to the losses that occur while companies are
producing, distributing and eventually selling goods to customers. Includes shoplifting and
employee theft.
In the case of employee theft, the following elements are identified:
o Unlawfulness: authorisation is absent during the taking of the money/merchandise.
o An actual deed: the taking and appropriation of a moveable corporeal thing.
o The intention of depriving the employer permanently of his property.
Determinants that often lead to arrest in cases of shop theft include the value and resale
price of the item, as well as whether the item was stolen in a professional and adroit manner.
Internationally, department stores and pharmacies suffer the greatest losses from shoplifting.
In SA, food retailers suffer the greatest losses, while factories suffer the least losses.
Britain has the highest worldwide level of stock losses, followed by Germany. Switzerland is
the country with the least shop theft.
According to the CGCSA, there has been a definite increase in shoplifting incidents over the
years, which cost the SA retail industry R6 million annually in 2004.
Research by Hollinger shows that ± a third of the employees interviewed acknowledged
having stolen goods from their employers during the preceding year. More than 2/3 of the
research group reported counterproductive behaviour such as alcohol or drug abuse while
on duty, misuse of sick leave, prolonged breaks and lunchtimes, as well as slow or poor
workmanship.
Hefter reports that:
o 1 in 3 employees is actively involved in employee theft.
o The majority of employees steal once a year.
o 9% of employees steal from their employers between 4 and 12 times a year.
o Employee theft is investigated by security managers more often than any other
breach of security.
o 1 in 3 bankruptcies may be directly attributed to or is a direct consequence of
employee theft.
, The 2001 National Retail Security Survey in the USA showed that employee theft makes up
46% of inventory shrinkage.
The most frequently occurring offence by employees was theft of cash followed by theft of
merchandise.
Most likely places for staff offending: tills and back areas.
3. NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SHOP AND EMPLOYEE THEFT
3.1. THE NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SHOP THEFT:
Common characteristics:
o Does not contain element/threat of violence.
o No need to gain unauthorised access to a building/premises.
o Most commonly an opportunistic crime.
Shoplifter motives and typology:
o Butler: people who shoplift are motivated by a series of socioeconomic and/or
personal factors, including temptation, psychological/psychiatric problems
(depression, stress, senility, effects of pregnancy, cerebral arteriosclerosis), poverty, a
desire for excitement, peer pressure, and the need to outsmart adults.
o Shop theft can also occur towing to political considerations – actions aimed against
capitalist institutions.
o Caputo’s motives: simple greed, reactions to personal crisis situations, low self-control,
unemployment, drug abuse, divorce and relationship separation, perceived low risk
of apprehension, and eating disorders.
o According to smith, 4 types of shoplifter can be identified:
Amateur: steals on impulse, because he desires and wants to use the item (food,
clothing). Easiest to detect due to lack of planning.
Juvenile: steals for thrill and status among peers. Amateurs and juveniles may
eventually become professionals.
Professional: steals for economic gain. Chooses smaller items with high resale
value. Frequently involved in other crimes (credit card fraud, drug use). 10% of
all shoplifters.
Kleptomaniac: rare. Usually steals low-value items because of psychological
urges. Often feels guilty. Essential feature is the recurrent failure to resist impulses
to steal objects that are not needed for personal use or their monetary value.
Items are often discarded, given away or returned.
Modus operandi:
o Methods of concealment: dropping items from the shelf into open bags waiting at the
shoplifters feet, putting items in handbags or baby carriages, hiding items in rolled up
newspapers and making use of false compartments in items of clothing (jackets, soles
of shoes).
o In groups, they often distract store personnel by entering the shop in a group and
splitting up in different directions, or sending an employee into the stores storage area
to find something.
& APPLICATION OF CRIME PREVENTION
APPROACHES, MODELS AND STRUCTURES
1. PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF CRIME
Crime prevention: all measures taken by way of government policy and private initiative to
prevent crime, with the exception of the criminal justice system.
Crime prevention models are usually based on specific theories or factors of crime that may
have played a part in the commission of crime or victimization, while programs have no
theoretical basis.
1971: USA established the National Crime Prevention Institute under the auspices of the Law
Enforcement Assistance Administration in the Department of Justice. Federal government
took charge of NCPI in 1986 to involve communities in crime prevention.
England:
o Local crime prevention panels existed from 1966.
o 1975: Home Office Committee on Crime Prevention.
o 1983: establishment of the Home Office Crime Prevention Centre and the Research
and Planning Unit.
France: prevention councils have been operating at local, regional and national levels since
1983.
Sweden and Denmark: national crime prevention councils since late 1970s.
SA: National Crime Prevention Policy – 22 May 1996. Advocates an integrated,
multidimensional crime prevention model for interdepartmental cooperation at central,
regional and local authority levels. Four pillars:
o The reduction of crime through effective environmental planning and design focusing
on designing systems to reduce the opportunity for crime and increase the ease of
detection and identification of criminals.
o The enhancement of community values and campaigns to educate the community
aimed at changing the way communities react to crime and violence. It involves
programs that make use of public education and information to facilitate meaningful
citizen participation in crime prevention.
o Transnational crime prevention for the specific purpose of crime across the borders.
o An effective and integrated criminal justice system. It must provide a sure, clear
deterrent for criminals and reduce the risks of reoffending.
Factors crucial to successful crime prevention:
o State and community involvement in implementing a comprehensive crime
prevention policy.
o A multidimensional crime prevention approach, which incorporates a number of
crime prevention models and their programs.
o Crime prevention models and programs based on causation theories and factors
which may be operative in crime and victimization.
, o Attention to the uniqueness of crime patterns and causes peculiar to a country or
neighbourhood.
o Proper planning and the evaluation of crime prevention programs (which must also
be cost-effective).
Crime prevention approaches:
o Social crime prevention model (by Graham):
Socioeconomic structures/systems (families, schools, churches, recreational
facilities, jobs) are important socialization structures.
Shortcomings in these structures may contribute to crime.
Social crime prevention programs are therefore designed to help vulnerable
groups, and to eradicate poor socioeconomic conditions and social
inequalities.
o Limiting opportunities for crime model:
Focus on potential victims, community and the physical environment.
Includes effective urban and environmental planning; publicity campaigns
aimed at making people more security conscious; target reinforcement; CCTV.
Successful in preventing crimes against property and people (robbery,
pickpocketing).
o Community-based crime prevention model:
Make offenders aware of the risk of being caught in specific neighbourhoods.
Examples: neighbourhood watches, safe houses, etc.
Successful in preventing robbery, pickpocketing, burglary, crimes against
property and car theft.
o Biophysical prevention model:
Early identification and treatment (esp. in children) may play an important role
in preventing crime.
Examples: vitamin supplements, diet adjustments, medication, therapy.
o Psychological prevention model
Focus on inner psychological needs and disorders that may give rise to criminal
behaviour.
Interpersonal problems and poor communication, particularly within the family,
may contribute to criminal behaviour.
Psychological treatments: psychological tests, psychotherapy, social casework.
o Integrated crime prevention models
Prevention of specific crime:
A number of factors are seen as contributing to the particular crime.
These factors are treated using appropriate crime prevention programs.
Examples: rehabilitation, training in family and social skills, psychological
treatment, techniques for coping with frustration and assistance with
finding employment.
Crime prevention and control by means of the criminal justice system:
Law regulates human behaviour and must, therefore, be just.
o Successful programmes:
Sherman, Gottfredson, MacKenzie, Eck, Reuter and Bushway found that the
following worked well in USA:
Regular home visits by nurses and other professionals, and weekly home
visits by teachers of preschool children to combat child abuse.
, Family therapy and parental guidance for families with at-risk youths and
adolescents.
School programs, such as innovative development programs, the
reinforcement of accepted norms and education in social skills.
Trade apprenticeships for former offenders.
Increased policing of crime risk areas.
Monitoring and detaining high-risk recidivists.
Arresting professional men who abuse their families.
Rehab for convicted offenders aimed at risk treatment.
Therapeutic community treatment programmes for drug users in prisons.
2. PROPERTY CRIMES 1: SHOP THEFT AND EMPLOYEE THEFT
Property crime is an umbrella term for crimes that are committed with fiscal gain as the
primary motive.
Includes fraud, shop theft, employee theft, common theft, vehicle theft, theft out of vehicles,
computer theft, stock theft, burglary, arson and vandalism.
Malicious shrinkage: an umbrella term relating to the losses that occur while companies are
producing, distributing and eventually selling goods to customers. Includes shoplifting and
employee theft.
In the case of employee theft, the following elements are identified:
o Unlawfulness: authorisation is absent during the taking of the money/merchandise.
o An actual deed: the taking and appropriation of a moveable corporeal thing.
o The intention of depriving the employer permanently of his property.
Determinants that often lead to arrest in cases of shop theft include the value and resale
price of the item, as well as whether the item was stolen in a professional and adroit manner.
Internationally, department stores and pharmacies suffer the greatest losses from shoplifting.
In SA, food retailers suffer the greatest losses, while factories suffer the least losses.
Britain has the highest worldwide level of stock losses, followed by Germany. Switzerland is
the country with the least shop theft.
According to the CGCSA, there has been a definite increase in shoplifting incidents over the
years, which cost the SA retail industry R6 million annually in 2004.
Research by Hollinger shows that ± a third of the employees interviewed acknowledged
having stolen goods from their employers during the preceding year. More than 2/3 of the
research group reported counterproductive behaviour such as alcohol or drug abuse while
on duty, misuse of sick leave, prolonged breaks and lunchtimes, as well as slow or poor
workmanship.
Hefter reports that:
o 1 in 3 employees is actively involved in employee theft.
o The majority of employees steal once a year.
o 9% of employees steal from their employers between 4 and 12 times a year.
o Employee theft is investigated by security managers more often than any other
breach of security.
o 1 in 3 bankruptcies may be directly attributed to or is a direct consequence of
employee theft.
, The 2001 National Retail Security Survey in the USA showed that employee theft makes up
46% of inventory shrinkage.
The most frequently occurring offence by employees was theft of cash followed by theft of
merchandise.
Most likely places for staff offending: tills and back areas.
3. NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SHOP AND EMPLOYEE THEFT
3.1. THE NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SHOP THEFT:
Common characteristics:
o Does not contain element/threat of violence.
o No need to gain unauthorised access to a building/premises.
o Most commonly an opportunistic crime.
Shoplifter motives and typology:
o Butler: people who shoplift are motivated by a series of socioeconomic and/or
personal factors, including temptation, psychological/psychiatric problems
(depression, stress, senility, effects of pregnancy, cerebral arteriosclerosis), poverty, a
desire for excitement, peer pressure, and the need to outsmart adults.
o Shop theft can also occur towing to political considerations – actions aimed against
capitalist institutions.
o Caputo’s motives: simple greed, reactions to personal crisis situations, low self-control,
unemployment, drug abuse, divorce and relationship separation, perceived low risk
of apprehension, and eating disorders.
o According to smith, 4 types of shoplifter can be identified:
Amateur: steals on impulse, because he desires and wants to use the item (food,
clothing). Easiest to detect due to lack of planning.
Juvenile: steals for thrill and status among peers. Amateurs and juveniles may
eventually become professionals.
Professional: steals for economic gain. Chooses smaller items with high resale
value. Frequently involved in other crimes (credit card fraud, drug use). 10% of
all shoplifters.
Kleptomaniac: rare. Usually steals low-value items because of psychological
urges. Often feels guilty. Essential feature is the recurrent failure to resist impulses
to steal objects that are not needed for personal use or their monetary value.
Items are often discarded, given away or returned.
Modus operandi:
o Methods of concealment: dropping items from the shelf into open bags waiting at the
shoplifters feet, putting items in handbags or baby carriages, hiding items in rolled up
newspapers and making use of false compartments in items of clothing (jackets, soles
of shoes).
o In groups, they often distract store personnel by entering the shop in a group and
splitting up in different directions, or sending an employee into the stores storage area
to find something.
