Philosophy of Science
compilation document
Content
Tutorial 1 – 12-2 – Philosophy of Science...............................................................................................2
Tutorial 2 – 5-3 – Philosophy of Science.................................................................................................9
Tutorial 3 – 14-4 – Philosophy of Science.............................................................................................18
Tutorial 4 – 7-5 – Philosophy of Science...............................................................................................29
1
,Tutorial 1 – 12-2 – Philosophy of Science
Learning goals
- By the end of this course
o You will be familiar with central debates in philosophy of science
o You will be equipped with a capacity for abstract thought regarding science
o You will develop a high level of generality and abstractness in reasoning and
reflection
o You will have a better understanding of how the different BAIS disciplines relate to
each other and to other disciplines
Your role in the tutorials
- Attendance
o Attendance is compulsory
o Inform your tutor in advance if you are unable to attend a session
- Other matters
o Check that you are correctly enrolled into your group on Brightspace
o Regularly read your student emails and Brightspace for updated information
Class Debate
- 20%
- Class debate in Tutorial 3
- Debate thesis, teams (proponents and opponents) and debate format will be explained in
Tutorial 2
- 3 Components
o Video recording of each team’s argument
o In class discussion
o Reflective document
10 %
- Debate grade is a collective grade
o the same for each team member
Writing a philosophy paper
- In tutorials 1, 2 and 3 we will organize a workshop on writing an essay on the essay topic of
that session
- Two or three students will write an essay (individually) of 1000 words on that essay topic
Writing a philosophy paper
- A philosophy paper consists of a reasoned defense of a claim
o Preparation
Read the relevant readings and take notes of important points
o Keep your audience in mind
o Make an outline of your paper
- Introduction
o State clearly your answer
o Make it clear what steps you will take to establish your conclusion
2
, o Explain why these steps will establish your conclusion
- The argument
o Focus on the question(s) asked and think about how you would answer them.
o Think
What would have to be true for my answer to be true?
Then show that those things (arguments) are true
o Use plenty of definitions and examples
- Conclusion
o Summarise the main points of your argument
Leave the examiner in no doubt that you have established your conclusion
And therefore kept your promise
o Do not introduce new material or arguments in the conclusion
“How to answer philosophy questions?”, accessed February 4, 2019,
https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/pais/people/eportfolios/poriax/teaching/
how_to_answer_philosophy_questions.pdf
Some tips
- Pretend that your reader is lazy, stupid, and mean
- Lazy s/he does not want to figure out what your convoluted sentences are supposed to
mean, and s/he does not want to figure out what your argument is, if it's not already obvious
- Stupid you have to explain all the technical terms you use in simple, bite-sized pieces
- Mean s/he does not read your paper charitably.
o For example, if something you say ambiguous (admits of more than one
interpretation), s/he is going to assume you meant the less plausible thing
Jim Pyotr, “Guidelines on Writing a Philosophy Paper’’, accessed February 4, 2019,
http://www.jimpryor.net/teaching/guidelines/writing.html
How does the knowledge typically produced by the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities
differ?
- In the field of International Studies, how does knowledge from each of the three groups of
disciplines make a useful contribution?
o Give examples
- How have the nomothetic and idiographic approaches contributed to creating the academic
field of International Studies?
- In your own specialist discipline (or discipline in which you hope to specialise), which of the
types of knowledge makes the largest contribution?
- What contribution does or could knowledge of the other types make?
o Why is this so?
Essay topic 1
- In groups of 3 and 4
o Break-down the question
o Define the keywords in the question
o Make a detailed outline of your essay
Hypothesis - Theory - Law
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zulQ0fgBia8
3
, o Ultimate truth
o Are there different levels of truth?
o Science is the best tool we have for understanding how the universe works
o Fact = observation about the world around us
For example: it is bright outside
Explanation: the sun is probably out
A hypothesis that is successfully tested
For example: people get sick
For example: objects fall towards the center of the earth
o Theory = a well-substantiated explanation acquired through the scientific method
and repeatedly tested and confirmed through observation and experimentation
When enough hypotheses turn out true and are piled up together
The way we know something works, based on evidence and successful
hypotheses
We can use theory to make predictions
How things are and will be
For example: Einstein’s theory of gravity
General relativity
o It cannot explain everything
o It is incomplete
For example: people in general have, can, and will get sick because of germs
o Hypothesis = a proposed explanation for a phenomenon made as a starting point for
further investigation
You do not prove this, you test it
Multiple hypotheses to explain a single observation
When a hypothesis is true it does not become a theory or a low, it just
become a possible way to explain something
For example: people get sick because of germs
For example: objects fall towards the center of the earth because of
gravitational force
o Law = a statement based on repeated experimental observations that describes
some phenomenon of nature
For example: Newton’s law of gravity
o Facts hypothesis testing theory predictions
Science
For example
Fact: people get sick
Hypothesis: germs
o Test: successful
Hypothesis: putrid humours/demonic
possession/sunspots/gluten/chemtrails
o Test: unsuccessful
o Science is never done
o The goal of science is to describe how things work
o The goal of science is to truly understand why things are the way they are right now,
so we can predict how things will be in the future
o Science is fuzzy in incomplete but useful nonetheless
4
compilation document
Content
Tutorial 1 – 12-2 – Philosophy of Science...............................................................................................2
Tutorial 2 – 5-3 – Philosophy of Science.................................................................................................9
Tutorial 3 – 14-4 – Philosophy of Science.............................................................................................18
Tutorial 4 – 7-5 – Philosophy of Science...............................................................................................29
1
,Tutorial 1 – 12-2 – Philosophy of Science
Learning goals
- By the end of this course
o You will be familiar with central debates in philosophy of science
o You will be equipped with a capacity for abstract thought regarding science
o You will develop a high level of generality and abstractness in reasoning and
reflection
o You will have a better understanding of how the different BAIS disciplines relate to
each other and to other disciplines
Your role in the tutorials
- Attendance
o Attendance is compulsory
o Inform your tutor in advance if you are unable to attend a session
- Other matters
o Check that you are correctly enrolled into your group on Brightspace
o Regularly read your student emails and Brightspace for updated information
Class Debate
- 20%
- Class debate in Tutorial 3
- Debate thesis, teams (proponents and opponents) and debate format will be explained in
Tutorial 2
- 3 Components
o Video recording of each team’s argument
o In class discussion
o Reflective document
10 %
- Debate grade is a collective grade
o the same for each team member
Writing a philosophy paper
- In tutorials 1, 2 and 3 we will organize a workshop on writing an essay on the essay topic of
that session
- Two or three students will write an essay (individually) of 1000 words on that essay topic
Writing a philosophy paper
- A philosophy paper consists of a reasoned defense of a claim
o Preparation
Read the relevant readings and take notes of important points
o Keep your audience in mind
o Make an outline of your paper
- Introduction
o State clearly your answer
o Make it clear what steps you will take to establish your conclusion
2
, o Explain why these steps will establish your conclusion
- The argument
o Focus on the question(s) asked and think about how you would answer them.
o Think
What would have to be true for my answer to be true?
Then show that those things (arguments) are true
o Use plenty of definitions and examples
- Conclusion
o Summarise the main points of your argument
Leave the examiner in no doubt that you have established your conclusion
And therefore kept your promise
o Do not introduce new material or arguments in the conclusion
“How to answer philosophy questions?”, accessed February 4, 2019,
https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/pais/people/eportfolios/poriax/teaching/
how_to_answer_philosophy_questions.pdf
Some tips
- Pretend that your reader is lazy, stupid, and mean
- Lazy s/he does not want to figure out what your convoluted sentences are supposed to
mean, and s/he does not want to figure out what your argument is, if it's not already obvious
- Stupid you have to explain all the technical terms you use in simple, bite-sized pieces
- Mean s/he does not read your paper charitably.
o For example, if something you say ambiguous (admits of more than one
interpretation), s/he is going to assume you meant the less plausible thing
Jim Pyotr, “Guidelines on Writing a Philosophy Paper’’, accessed February 4, 2019,
http://www.jimpryor.net/teaching/guidelines/writing.html
How does the knowledge typically produced by the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities
differ?
- In the field of International Studies, how does knowledge from each of the three groups of
disciplines make a useful contribution?
o Give examples
- How have the nomothetic and idiographic approaches contributed to creating the academic
field of International Studies?
- In your own specialist discipline (or discipline in which you hope to specialise), which of the
types of knowledge makes the largest contribution?
- What contribution does or could knowledge of the other types make?
o Why is this so?
Essay topic 1
- In groups of 3 and 4
o Break-down the question
o Define the keywords in the question
o Make a detailed outline of your essay
Hypothesis - Theory - Law
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zulQ0fgBia8
3
, o Ultimate truth
o Are there different levels of truth?
o Science is the best tool we have for understanding how the universe works
o Fact = observation about the world around us
For example: it is bright outside
Explanation: the sun is probably out
A hypothesis that is successfully tested
For example: people get sick
For example: objects fall towards the center of the earth
o Theory = a well-substantiated explanation acquired through the scientific method
and repeatedly tested and confirmed through observation and experimentation
When enough hypotheses turn out true and are piled up together
The way we know something works, based on evidence and successful
hypotheses
We can use theory to make predictions
How things are and will be
For example: Einstein’s theory of gravity
General relativity
o It cannot explain everything
o It is incomplete
For example: people in general have, can, and will get sick because of germs
o Hypothesis = a proposed explanation for a phenomenon made as a starting point for
further investigation
You do not prove this, you test it
Multiple hypotheses to explain a single observation
When a hypothesis is true it does not become a theory or a low, it just
become a possible way to explain something
For example: people get sick because of germs
For example: objects fall towards the center of the earth because of
gravitational force
o Law = a statement based on repeated experimental observations that describes
some phenomenon of nature
For example: Newton’s law of gravity
o Facts hypothesis testing theory predictions
Science
For example
Fact: people get sick
Hypothesis: germs
o Test: successful
Hypothesis: putrid humours/demonic
possession/sunspots/gluten/chemtrails
o Test: unsuccessful
o Science is never done
o The goal of science is to describe how things work
o The goal of science is to truly understand why things are the way they are right now,
so we can predict how things will be in the future
o Science is fuzzy in incomplete but useful nonetheless
4
