1.8C Problem 7
Is Knowledge Always Good?
Misinformation (MI) originates from rumours, works of fiction, governments and
politicians, vested interests
Difficulties of correcting widespread belief in MI arise from 2 factors:
1. Cognitive variables within individuals that render MI as sticky (attracts much
attention)
2. Ability to reach target
Societal Cost of MI
Processes of opinion and belief formation are of obvious public interest, esp. if
major streams that oppose established facts
o If majority believes something factually incorrect, may form basis for
political and societal decisions that run counter to society’s best interest
o If individuals misinformed, make decisions for self and families that can
have serious consequences
Reliance on MI different from ignorance- absence of relevant knowledge
o Effects less severe than those from reliance on MI as in self-acknowledged
absence of knowledge, turn to heuristic when making decisions
Have low levels of confidence on decisions made on basis of
heuristics= rarely strong support for beliefs
Origins of MI
Often absence of intent to mislead
Piece of info that are considered correct can later turn out to be erroneous eg.
reporting on corona cases, initial info proved incorrect
MI often during evolving event or updating unavoidable and intentional
knowledge, plus:
1. Rumours and fiction
2. Governments and politicians
3. Vested interest- eg. corporation’s long history of influence public debate via
incorrect info
4. The media- further increasing by internet
1. Rumours and Fiction
Human culture strongly dependent on people passing on info
Mainly pass on info that evokes emotion in recipient
o Irrelevant of info truth value
Emotional arousal increases willingness to pass on info
o Stories containing content likely to cause disgust, fear, happiness,
spread more than neutral stories
Literary fiction- people extract knowledge from sources that are
explicitly identified as fictional
o Fiction writers don’t stick to facts, creating MI
o Study: people rely on MI from clearly fictitious stories even when MI
contradict common knowledge, though source attributions was
intact
aware info was based on stories, but increased fictious belief
of prior knowledge
Significance: encountering MI in fictional content leads to
assumption that knowledge has been known all along,
integrate MI with prior knowledge
o Effects of fictional MI stable and hard to eliminate
Study: prior warnings ineffective in reducing acquisition of
MI from fiction
Acquisition only reduces under active on-line
monitoring- participants instructed to actively
, monitor contexts and press key every time new
piece of MI
2. Governments and Politicians
Public have some awareness of presence of politically motivated MI in
society, especially during election campaigns
When asked to identify specific instances of MI, often can’t differentiate
between false and correct info
o Public awareness of the problem doesn’t help prevent widespread
confusion
3. Vested Interests and NGOs
Concerted efforts by vested interests to disseminate MI
o especially about issues of environment and public health, to
motivate policies that would impose burden on certain areas eg.
fossil fuels
o = agnogenesis- process of wilful manufacture of mistaken beliefs
Spreading of MI not always based of concerted efforts by vested interests
o Industry often harmed by MI
4. Media
People obtain much info from media
Sometimes unavoidably report incorrect info because need quick coverage
Inadvertently oversimplify, misrepresent, overdramatise scientific results
o Science v. complex so requires simplification to be communicated
effectively
Can lead to misunderstanding
Scientists should be careful to communicate
results clearly and unambiguously, press
release should be constructed to avoid media
misunderstandings
In all reporting, journalists aim to present “balanced story”
o If media stick to this, even when not needed, can be misleading
Eg. Get official stats for covid cases, then try get someone
debating them
o Media thought to systematically overextend “balance” frame
Role of the Internet
Revolutionised availability of info
o Facilitated spread of MI as obviates use of conventional “gate-
keeping” mechanisms
Progressively replaces expert advice
o Relying on internet for health info especially risky as reliability
varies a lot
Online videos effective and popular in disseminating info and MI
Hoax websites with sole purpose to disseminate MI
o Sometimes act as official sources of info
Consequences of Increasing Media Fractionation
Selective exposure- people to find new sources that support existing views
More media to choose from, biased towards like-minded media sources
Creates fractionated info landscape
o Creates environment for strategic extremism among politicians
Precondition for success of politicians, where info selectively
channelled to people likely to support it
Creates large segments of MI in society
Recipient Strategies of Assessing Truth
Usually, can’t recognise info that’s incorrect until receive correction or retraction
Info relaying in convo comes with “guarantee of relevance”
o Listens assume speakers try to be truthful, relevant, and clear unless
evidence to suggests questioning this default into question
o To comprehend a statement, must at least temporarily accept it as true
If topic isn’t important to person, or other things on your mind, MI likely slips in
Is Knowledge Always Good?
Misinformation (MI) originates from rumours, works of fiction, governments and
politicians, vested interests
Difficulties of correcting widespread belief in MI arise from 2 factors:
1. Cognitive variables within individuals that render MI as sticky (attracts much
attention)
2. Ability to reach target
Societal Cost of MI
Processes of opinion and belief formation are of obvious public interest, esp. if
major streams that oppose established facts
o If majority believes something factually incorrect, may form basis for
political and societal decisions that run counter to society’s best interest
o If individuals misinformed, make decisions for self and families that can
have serious consequences
Reliance on MI different from ignorance- absence of relevant knowledge
o Effects less severe than those from reliance on MI as in self-acknowledged
absence of knowledge, turn to heuristic when making decisions
Have low levels of confidence on decisions made on basis of
heuristics= rarely strong support for beliefs
Origins of MI
Often absence of intent to mislead
Piece of info that are considered correct can later turn out to be erroneous eg.
reporting on corona cases, initial info proved incorrect
MI often during evolving event or updating unavoidable and intentional
knowledge, plus:
1. Rumours and fiction
2. Governments and politicians
3. Vested interest- eg. corporation’s long history of influence public debate via
incorrect info
4. The media- further increasing by internet
1. Rumours and Fiction
Human culture strongly dependent on people passing on info
Mainly pass on info that evokes emotion in recipient
o Irrelevant of info truth value
Emotional arousal increases willingness to pass on info
o Stories containing content likely to cause disgust, fear, happiness,
spread more than neutral stories
Literary fiction- people extract knowledge from sources that are
explicitly identified as fictional
o Fiction writers don’t stick to facts, creating MI
o Study: people rely on MI from clearly fictitious stories even when MI
contradict common knowledge, though source attributions was
intact
aware info was based on stories, but increased fictious belief
of prior knowledge
Significance: encountering MI in fictional content leads to
assumption that knowledge has been known all along,
integrate MI with prior knowledge
o Effects of fictional MI stable and hard to eliminate
Study: prior warnings ineffective in reducing acquisition of
MI from fiction
Acquisition only reduces under active on-line
monitoring- participants instructed to actively
, monitor contexts and press key every time new
piece of MI
2. Governments and Politicians
Public have some awareness of presence of politically motivated MI in
society, especially during election campaigns
When asked to identify specific instances of MI, often can’t differentiate
between false and correct info
o Public awareness of the problem doesn’t help prevent widespread
confusion
3. Vested Interests and NGOs
Concerted efforts by vested interests to disseminate MI
o especially about issues of environment and public health, to
motivate policies that would impose burden on certain areas eg.
fossil fuels
o = agnogenesis- process of wilful manufacture of mistaken beliefs
Spreading of MI not always based of concerted efforts by vested interests
o Industry often harmed by MI
4. Media
People obtain much info from media
Sometimes unavoidably report incorrect info because need quick coverage
Inadvertently oversimplify, misrepresent, overdramatise scientific results
o Science v. complex so requires simplification to be communicated
effectively
Can lead to misunderstanding
Scientists should be careful to communicate
results clearly and unambiguously, press
release should be constructed to avoid media
misunderstandings
In all reporting, journalists aim to present “balanced story”
o If media stick to this, even when not needed, can be misleading
Eg. Get official stats for covid cases, then try get someone
debating them
o Media thought to systematically overextend “balance” frame
Role of the Internet
Revolutionised availability of info
o Facilitated spread of MI as obviates use of conventional “gate-
keeping” mechanisms
Progressively replaces expert advice
o Relying on internet for health info especially risky as reliability
varies a lot
Online videos effective and popular in disseminating info and MI
Hoax websites with sole purpose to disseminate MI
o Sometimes act as official sources of info
Consequences of Increasing Media Fractionation
Selective exposure- people to find new sources that support existing views
More media to choose from, biased towards like-minded media sources
Creates fractionated info landscape
o Creates environment for strategic extremism among politicians
Precondition for success of politicians, where info selectively
channelled to people likely to support it
Creates large segments of MI in society
Recipient Strategies of Assessing Truth
Usually, can’t recognise info that’s incorrect until receive correction or retraction
Info relaying in convo comes with “guarantee of relevance”
o Listens assume speakers try to be truthful, relevant, and clear unless
evidence to suggests questioning this default into question
o To comprehend a statement, must at least temporarily accept it as true
If topic isn’t important to person, or other things on your mind, MI likely slips in
