SOCIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
Leiden University
Summary 2020-2021
English
, 1) What is Organizational Behaviour?
(3 pages)
1.1 What Is Organizational Behavior?
The goal of this book is to help you become an effective leader.
OB is defined as the study of individuals and their behaviours at work, it is a multidisciplinary field
that draws upon the best ideas and research from several disciplines. The goal of OB as a field is to
improve the functioning of the organization and how employees experience their work.
From theory to practise:
1. Description: What does the process look like?
2. Prediction: Will the process occur again? And when?
3. Explanation: Why is this happening?
4. Control: Can we change whether or not this happens?
The Hawthorne effect refers to positive responses in attitudes and performance when researchers
pay attention to a particular group of workers. The Hawthorne researchers concluded that the
human element in organizations was more important than previously thought, and they learned that
workers want attention.
1.2 Evidence-Based Management
The four sources of information used in evidence-based management (EBM):
1. The best available scientific evidence
—for example, research published on OB
2. The best available organizational evidence
—for example, interviews or surveys completed by people in an organization
3. The best available experiential evidence
—for example, the intuition of the leader and his or her expert opinions
4. Organizational values and stakeholders’ concerns
—for example, stock price or groups that focus on whether the organization employs
environmentally friendly practices
It basically says to ask questions and challenge the way you think. Like this:
Stop treating old ideas as if they were brand new.
Be suspicious of “breakthrough” studies and ideas.
Develop and celebrate collective brilliance.
a diverse collection of independent decision makers (although not expert) makes better predictions
on the average compared to an expert decision maker!
The Delphi method: (geographic) divers group of experts, do not meet in person, all hand in their
solution to the problem (received and resolved through written word like email), leader summarizes
and sends results back, they revise till there’s an agreement.
Emphasize drawbacks as well as virtues.
Use success (and failure) stories to illustrate sound practices but not in place of a valid research
method.
Adopt a neutral stance toward ideologies and theories.
most management “gurus” are from North America, EBM demands that we question whether
ideology developed in North America applies abroad
1.3 What is Critical Thinking?
Critical thinking is the process of learning by questioning everything. Critical thinking skills are applied
to sort through all of the information gathered and then prioritize it.
,1.4 The scientific method
- Outcome Variables in Organizational Behaviour
Since OB is an applied science, the outcome variables studied are typically variables that leaders are
interested in improving. There are five broad groups of outcome variables studied:
1. Performance:
can be actual performance as collected in organizational records, or it may be rated by supervisors
and/or peers
Organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) is the worker’s willingness to go above and beyond what
is required in his or her job description to help others at work. OCB predicts employee performance,
reward-allocation decisions, and a variety of withdrawal-related criteria
2. Work-related Attitudes:
Job satisfaction
Organizational commitment = loyalty to an organization
Lack of loyalty results in people being absent from work more often. Uncommitted workers are less
motivated and perform at lower levels.
Employee engagement = how invested someone is with work (still thinking about it and working on
problems when at home)
3. Employee Well-Being:
emotional exhaustion, psychosomatic health complaints, and physical health symptoms
having a weak leader, being asked to do an illegitimate task (outside of the boundaries of a person’s
job)
4. Motivation:
both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation is based on the rewards from the organization’s compensation system such as
pay and bonuses. Intrinsic motivation, on the other hand, is related to the value of the work itself.
Prosocial motivation = the degree to which employees behave in a way that benefits society as a
whole
, 5. Employee Withdrawal:
The availability of outside employment opportunities, or lower job satisfaction and engagement, or
absenteeism
1.6 Levels of Analysis in Organizational Behaviour
The most basic level is the individual level, like an individual’s personality and experiences.
Other differences between people’s behaviour occur at the dyad (or two-party) level, an example
would be a mentor and a protégé.
Other sources include group- and team-level influences on individual behaviour, for example a team
that has high-performance norms.
Or the organizational level, like the cultural characteristics (U.S. Marine Corps is proud, strong men).
There is also the industry level of analysis where comparisons are made across different industries.
1.7 How OB Research Increases Employee Performance
Through understanding and theories of the aforementioned levels, does OB increase employee
performance. Like in this example:
If a manager assumes that followers are lazy and will perform poorly, they treat them in ways that
control their behaviour and decrease creativity. In contrast, if a manager assumes that their followers
are smart and motivated, they allow them to participate in decisions and give them goals that stretch
their talents.
With this knowledge, changes can be made.
1.8 Theory X and Theory Y
Leader behaviours are influenced by fundamental assumptions and beliefs about human nature.
Most managers are not aware of their underlying assumptions. These assumptions are divided into
pessimistic (Theory X) and optimistic (Theory Y) views of human nature.
Theory X leaders assume that people are basically lazy, don’t like to work, and avoid responsibility.
Theory Y leaders assume that people are internally motivated, like to work, and will accept
responsibility.
- Plan for This Textbook Summary
OB is a problem-focused discipline aimed at making organizations more effective. Each chapter will
review the essential and most current theory and research, and relate it to how you can develop your
leadership skills. Leadership is a theme that runs through the textbook.
This introductory chapter has provided an overview of EBM and critical thinking that should be
applied to all of the following chapters.
- Leadership Implications: Thinking Critically
You may think that OB is just all “touchy-feely” stuff that has no practical value. Try to keep an open
mind and overcome any biases or preconceived ideas you may have about leadership or
management.
Want a better grade? Go to https://edge.sagepub.com/scandura2e for the tools you need to sharpen
your study skills.
PSYCHOLOGY
Leiden University
Summary 2020-2021
English
, 1) What is Organizational Behaviour?
(3 pages)
1.1 What Is Organizational Behavior?
The goal of this book is to help you become an effective leader.
OB is defined as the study of individuals and their behaviours at work, it is a multidisciplinary field
that draws upon the best ideas and research from several disciplines. The goal of OB as a field is to
improve the functioning of the organization and how employees experience their work.
From theory to practise:
1. Description: What does the process look like?
2. Prediction: Will the process occur again? And when?
3. Explanation: Why is this happening?
4. Control: Can we change whether or not this happens?
The Hawthorne effect refers to positive responses in attitudes and performance when researchers
pay attention to a particular group of workers. The Hawthorne researchers concluded that the
human element in organizations was more important than previously thought, and they learned that
workers want attention.
1.2 Evidence-Based Management
The four sources of information used in evidence-based management (EBM):
1. The best available scientific evidence
—for example, research published on OB
2. The best available organizational evidence
—for example, interviews or surveys completed by people in an organization
3. The best available experiential evidence
—for example, the intuition of the leader and his or her expert opinions
4. Organizational values and stakeholders’ concerns
—for example, stock price or groups that focus on whether the organization employs
environmentally friendly practices
It basically says to ask questions and challenge the way you think. Like this:
Stop treating old ideas as if they were brand new.
Be suspicious of “breakthrough” studies and ideas.
Develop and celebrate collective brilliance.
a diverse collection of independent decision makers (although not expert) makes better predictions
on the average compared to an expert decision maker!
The Delphi method: (geographic) divers group of experts, do not meet in person, all hand in their
solution to the problem (received and resolved through written word like email), leader summarizes
and sends results back, they revise till there’s an agreement.
Emphasize drawbacks as well as virtues.
Use success (and failure) stories to illustrate sound practices but not in place of a valid research
method.
Adopt a neutral stance toward ideologies and theories.
most management “gurus” are from North America, EBM demands that we question whether
ideology developed in North America applies abroad
1.3 What is Critical Thinking?
Critical thinking is the process of learning by questioning everything. Critical thinking skills are applied
to sort through all of the information gathered and then prioritize it.
,1.4 The scientific method
- Outcome Variables in Organizational Behaviour
Since OB is an applied science, the outcome variables studied are typically variables that leaders are
interested in improving. There are five broad groups of outcome variables studied:
1. Performance:
can be actual performance as collected in organizational records, or it may be rated by supervisors
and/or peers
Organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) is the worker’s willingness to go above and beyond what
is required in his or her job description to help others at work. OCB predicts employee performance,
reward-allocation decisions, and a variety of withdrawal-related criteria
2. Work-related Attitudes:
Job satisfaction
Organizational commitment = loyalty to an organization
Lack of loyalty results in people being absent from work more often. Uncommitted workers are less
motivated and perform at lower levels.
Employee engagement = how invested someone is with work (still thinking about it and working on
problems when at home)
3. Employee Well-Being:
emotional exhaustion, psychosomatic health complaints, and physical health symptoms
having a weak leader, being asked to do an illegitimate task (outside of the boundaries of a person’s
job)
4. Motivation:
both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation is based on the rewards from the organization’s compensation system such as
pay and bonuses. Intrinsic motivation, on the other hand, is related to the value of the work itself.
Prosocial motivation = the degree to which employees behave in a way that benefits society as a
whole
, 5. Employee Withdrawal:
The availability of outside employment opportunities, or lower job satisfaction and engagement, or
absenteeism
1.6 Levels of Analysis in Organizational Behaviour
The most basic level is the individual level, like an individual’s personality and experiences.
Other differences between people’s behaviour occur at the dyad (or two-party) level, an example
would be a mentor and a protégé.
Other sources include group- and team-level influences on individual behaviour, for example a team
that has high-performance norms.
Or the organizational level, like the cultural characteristics (U.S. Marine Corps is proud, strong men).
There is also the industry level of analysis where comparisons are made across different industries.
1.7 How OB Research Increases Employee Performance
Through understanding and theories of the aforementioned levels, does OB increase employee
performance. Like in this example:
If a manager assumes that followers are lazy and will perform poorly, they treat them in ways that
control their behaviour and decrease creativity. In contrast, if a manager assumes that their followers
are smart and motivated, they allow them to participate in decisions and give them goals that stretch
their talents.
With this knowledge, changes can be made.
1.8 Theory X and Theory Y
Leader behaviours are influenced by fundamental assumptions and beliefs about human nature.
Most managers are not aware of their underlying assumptions. These assumptions are divided into
pessimistic (Theory X) and optimistic (Theory Y) views of human nature.
Theory X leaders assume that people are basically lazy, don’t like to work, and avoid responsibility.
Theory Y leaders assume that people are internally motivated, like to work, and will accept
responsibility.
- Plan for This Textbook Summary
OB is a problem-focused discipline aimed at making organizations more effective. Each chapter will
review the essential and most current theory and research, and relate it to how you can develop your
leadership skills. Leadership is a theme that runs through the textbook.
This introductory chapter has provided an overview of EBM and critical thinking that should be
applied to all of the following chapters.
- Leadership Implications: Thinking Critically
You may think that OB is just all “touchy-feely” stuff that has no practical value. Try to keep an open
mind and overcome any biases or preconceived ideas you may have about leadership or
management.
Want a better grade? Go to https://edge.sagepub.com/scandura2e for the tools you need to sharpen
your study skills.
