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*Criminology* The scientific study of the nature, causes, and consequences of crime and
criminal behavior
*Criminal justice* The system of institutions, practices, and organizations that respond to crime,
including law enforcement, courts, and corrections
*Theory* A systematic explanation for observed facts and laws that describes and
predicts, emerging from patterns that are tested and retested to suggest
results are not random
*Intersubjective agreement* A norm of science where researchers studying the same problem arrive at the
same conclusion; used instead of "objective" to describe scientific consensus
*Hypothesis* A specified expectation about empirical reality, derived from propositions; a
testable prediction
*Micro-level theory* A theory that explains individual-level behavior — why a specific person
commits crime
*Macro-level theory* A theory that explains patterns of crime across places, societies, or groups —
why crime rates differ across neighborhoods or populations
*Spiritualism* An early explanation for criminal behavior that emphasized a struggle
between absolute good and absolute evil; crime was believed to result from
evil or demonic possession
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, Theories of crime study notes.pdf Theories of crime study notes.pdf Theories of crime study notes
*Trial by battle* An early form of justice in which accused and accuser (or their
representatives) would physically fight to determine guilt or innocence
*Trial by ordeal* An early form of justice in which an accused person was subjected to a
painful or dangerous test, with survival interpreted as proof of innocence
*Compurgation* An early form of justice in which the accused could be declared innocent if
enough witnesses (oath-helpers) swore to their innocence
*Classical school* School of thought emerging in the 18th century that views crime as a
calculated decision made by a rational, free-willed individual weighing costs
and benefits; founded by Cesare Beccaria
*Cesare Beccaria* Italian philosopher (1738-1794) and founder of the classical school; authored
On Crimes and Punishments (1764)
*On Crimes and Punishments* Beccaria's major work (1764) arguing that punishment should be proportional,
certain, and swift in order to deter crime
*Deterrence* The prevention of crime through the threat of punishment; driven by swiftness,
certainty, and severity of punishment
*Swiftness, certainty, and severity* Beccaria's three elements of effective deterrence — punishment must be
delivered quickly, consistently, and at the right level to prevent crime
Theories of crime study notes.pdf Theories of crime study notes.pdf Theories of crime study notes.pdf
Theoriesand
of Crime
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Theories
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of CrimeLatest
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and Answers Latest 2026_2027 Version
Theories of Crime
Study Notes
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2026/2027 Version
Theories of Crime Study Notes Questions
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of Crime
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,Theories of crime study notes.pdf Theories of crime study notes.pdf Theories of crime study notes
*Criminology* The scientific study of the nature, causes, and consequences of crime and
criminal behavior
*Criminal justice* The system of institutions, practices, and organizations that respond to crime,
including law enforcement, courts, and corrections
*Theory* A systematic explanation for observed facts and laws that describes and
predicts, emerging from patterns that are tested and retested to suggest
results are not random
*Intersubjective agreement* A norm of science where researchers studying the same problem arrive at the
same conclusion; used instead of "objective" to describe scientific consensus
*Hypothesis* A specified expectation about empirical reality, derived from propositions; a
testable prediction
*Micro-level theory* A theory that explains individual-level behavior — why a specific person
commits crime
*Macro-level theory* A theory that explains patterns of crime across places, societies, or groups —
why crime rates differ across neighborhoods or populations
*Spiritualism* An early explanation for criminal behavior that emphasized a struggle
between absolute good and absolute evil; crime was believed to result from
evil or demonic possession
Theories of crime study notes.pdf Theories of crime study notes.pdf Theories of crime study notes.pdf
, Theories of crime study notes.pdf Theories of crime study notes.pdf Theories of crime study notes
*Trial by battle* An early form of justice in which accused and accuser (or their
representatives) would physically fight to determine guilt or innocence
*Trial by ordeal* An early form of justice in which an accused person was subjected to a
painful or dangerous test, with survival interpreted as proof of innocence
*Compurgation* An early form of justice in which the accused could be declared innocent if
enough witnesses (oath-helpers) swore to their innocence
*Classical school* School of thought emerging in the 18th century that views crime as a
calculated decision made by a rational, free-willed individual weighing costs
and benefits; founded by Cesare Beccaria
*Cesare Beccaria* Italian philosopher (1738-1794) and founder of the classical school; authored
On Crimes and Punishments (1764)
*On Crimes and Punishments* Beccaria's major work (1764) arguing that punishment should be proportional,
certain, and swift in order to deter crime
*Deterrence* The prevention of crime through the threat of punishment; driven by swiftness,
certainty, and severity of punishment
*Swiftness, certainty, and severity* Beccaria's three elements of effective deterrence — punishment must be
delivered quickly, consistently, and at the right level to prevent crime
Theories of crime study notes.pdf Theories of crime study notes.pdf Theories of crime study notes.pdf
