IGCSE Psychology (9218)
Mental Health & Mental Disorders
Comprehensive Study Notes with Detailed Explanations
Topics Covered:
• Understanding Mental Health
• Effects of Mental Health Problems
• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
,TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. MENTAL HEALTH OVERVIEW 3
1.1 Historical Changes in Mental Health Problems 3
1.2 Characteristics of Positive Mental Health 4
1.3 Cultural Variations in Mental Health Beliefs 5
1.4 Modern Living Challenges 6
1.5 Increased Recognition and Reduced Stigma 7
2. EFFECTS OF MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS 8
2.1 Individual Effects 8
2.2 Social Effects 9
3. OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER (OCD) 10
3.1 Diagnosis and Characteristics 10
3.2 Biological Explanations 11
3.3 Cognitive Explanations 12
3.4 Cognitive Behaviour Therapy Treatment 13
3.5 Kearns's Research Study 14
4. POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER (PTSD) 15
4.1 Diagnosis and Characteristics 15
4.2 Biological Explanations 16
4.3 Dual Representation Theory 17
4.4 Prolonged Exposure Therapy Treatment 18
4.5 Eftekhari's Research Study 19
,1. MENTAL HEALTH OVERVIEW
1.1 Historical Changes in Mental Health Problems Over Time
The incidence and prevalence of mental health problems have undergone significant transformations
throughout history, particularly from the nineteenth century onwards. Understanding these changes
requires examining both actual shifts in disease occurrence and changes in how mental health
problems are recognized, diagnosed, and reported.
Pre-20th Century Understanding:
Throughout most of human history, mental health problems were understood through frameworks
vastly different from modern medicine. In ancient Greece and Rome, mental illnesses were often
attributed to imbalances in bodily humours (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile). Medieval
and Renaissance periods frequently attributed mental health problems to demonic possession,
witchcraft, or spiritual corruption. Treatments included exorcism, physical restraint, and
punishment. This era was marked by profound misunderstanding and stigmatization of those
experiencing mental health conditions, leading to severe mistreatment and social ostracism.
19th-20th Century: The Medical Model Emerges:
The nineteenth century witnessed a paradigm shift toward understanding mental health through
a medical lens. Pioneers like Philippe Pinel and Dorothea Dix advocated for moral treatment—
removing physical restraints and providing humane care. Psychiatry began establishing itself as a
medical discipline. The development of diagnostic classification systems allowed for systematic
study of mental illnesses. By the twentieth century, biological, psychological, and social theories
emerged to explain mental health problems. Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory
revolutionized thinking about mental health causes and treatments.
Late 20th-21st Century: Epidemiological Changes:
The late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries have seen documented increases in rates of certain
mental health problems, particularly anxiety disorders and depression. Several factors contribute to this
apparent increase:
• Better Recognition: Improved diagnostic criteria (DSM-5, ICD-11), better-trained healthcare
professionals, and greater public awareness means more cases are identified and reported
, • Reduced Stigma: As social stigma decreases, more people seek help, leading to higher
recorded prevalence rates
• Better Data Collection: Modern epidemiological surveys and systematic population studies
provide more accurate prevalence estimates than historical records
• Genuine Increases: Some increases reflect real changes in society—work stress, social
isolation, economic insecurity, and environmental pressures may genuinely increase mental
health problems
• Childhood ADHD & Autism Spectrum: Increased diagnoses reflect both better identification
and broader diagnostic criteria, not necessarily true increases in occurrence
Key Insight: Distinguishing between actual increases in mental health problems and increases in
detection/diagnosis is crucial. Modern rates likely reflect a combination of genuine increase and
better recognition.
1.2 Characteristics of Positive Mental Health
Mental health extends far beyond simply the absence of mental illness. The World Health Organization
defines mental health as 'a state of well-being in which every individual realizes his or her own potential,
can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a
contribution to her or his community.' This definition emphasizes active functioning and wellbeing rather
than merely the absence of disease.
CHARACTERISTIC DETAILED DESCRIPTION
1. Positive This encompasses multiple dimensions: the ability to
Engagement with form and maintain meaningful, reciprocal relationships
Society with others; participation in community activities and
social organizations; contributing to society through
work, volunteering, or family roles; experiencing a
sense of belonging and connection; and maintaining
social networks. Individuals with positive engagement
demonstrate empathy, cooperativeness, and the
capacity to both give and receive support. They
experience life as meaningful and feel their
contributions matter.
Mental Health & Mental Disorders
Comprehensive Study Notes with Detailed Explanations
Topics Covered:
• Understanding Mental Health
• Effects of Mental Health Problems
• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
,TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. MENTAL HEALTH OVERVIEW 3
1.1 Historical Changes in Mental Health Problems 3
1.2 Characteristics of Positive Mental Health 4
1.3 Cultural Variations in Mental Health Beliefs 5
1.4 Modern Living Challenges 6
1.5 Increased Recognition and Reduced Stigma 7
2. EFFECTS OF MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS 8
2.1 Individual Effects 8
2.2 Social Effects 9
3. OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER (OCD) 10
3.1 Diagnosis and Characteristics 10
3.2 Biological Explanations 11
3.3 Cognitive Explanations 12
3.4 Cognitive Behaviour Therapy Treatment 13
3.5 Kearns's Research Study 14
4. POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER (PTSD) 15
4.1 Diagnosis and Characteristics 15
4.2 Biological Explanations 16
4.3 Dual Representation Theory 17
4.4 Prolonged Exposure Therapy Treatment 18
4.5 Eftekhari's Research Study 19
,1. MENTAL HEALTH OVERVIEW
1.1 Historical Changes in Mental Health Problems Over Time
The incidence and prevalence of mental health problems have undergone significant transformations
throughout history, particularly from the nineteenth century onwards. Understanding these changes
requires examining both actual shifts in disease occurrence and changes in how mental health
problems are recognized, diagnosed, and reported.
Pre-20th Century Understanding:
Throughout most of human history, mental health problems were understood through frameworks
vastly different from modern medicine. In ancient Greece and Rome, mental illnesses were often
attributed to imbalances in bodily humours (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile). Medieval
and Renaissance periods frequently attributed mental health problems to demonic possession,
witchcraft, or spiritual corruption. Treatments included exorcism, physical restraint, and
punishment. This era was marked by profound misunderstanding and stigmatization of those
experiencing mental health conditions, leading to severe mistreatment and social ostracism.
19th-20th Century: The Medical Model Emerges:
The nineteenth century witnessed a paradigm shift toward understanding mental health through
a medical lens. Pioneers like Philippe Pinel and Dorothea Dix advocated for moral treatment—
removing physical restraints and providing humane care. Psychiatry began establishing itself as a
medical discipline. The development of diagnostic classification systems allowed for systematic
study of mental illnesses. By the twentieth century, biological, psychological, and social theories
emerged to explain mental health problems. Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory
revolutionized thinking about mental health causes and treatments.
Late 20th-21st Century: Epidemiological Changes:
The late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries have seen documented increases in rates of certain
mental health problems, particularly anxiety disorders and depression. Several factors contribute to this
apparent increase:
• Better Recognition: Improved diagnostic criteria (DSM-5, ICD-11), better-trained healthcare
professionals, and greater public awareness means more cases are identified and reported
, • Reduced Stigma: As social stigma decreases, more people seek help, leading to higher
recorded prevalence rates
• Better Data Collection: Modern epidemiological surveys and systematic population studies
provide more accurate prevalence estimates than historical records
• Genuine Increases: Some increases reflect real changes in society—work stress, social
isolation, economic insecurity, and environmental pressures may genuinely increase mental
health problems
• Childhood ADHD & Autism Spectrum: Increased diagnoses reflect both better identification
and broader diagnostic criteria, not necessarily true increases in occurrence
Key Insight: Distinguishing between actual increases in mental health problems and increases in
detection/diagnosis is crucial. Modern rates likely reflect a combination of genuine increase and
better recognition.
1.2 Characteristics of Positive Mental Health
Mental health extends far beyond simply the absence of mental illness. The World Health Organization
defines mental health as 'a state of well-being in which every individual realizes his or her own potential,
can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a
contribution to her or his community.' This definition emphasizes active functioning and wellbeing rather
than merely the absence of disease.
CHARACTERISTIC DETAILED DESCRIPTION
1. Positive This encompasses multiple dimensions: the ability to
Engagement with form and maintain meaningful, reciprocal relationships
Society with others; participation in community activities and
social organizations; contributing to society through
work, volunteering, or family roles; experiencing a
sense of belonging and connection; and maintaining
social networks. Individuals with positive engagement
demonstrate empathy, cooperativeness, and the
capacity to both give and receive support. They
experience life as meaningful and feel their
contributions matter.
