Unit 8: physiology of human body systems
Assignment 2- Aisha Towle
References
https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/hodgkin-lymphoma
https://www.macmillan.org.uk/cancer-information-and-support/treatments-and-drugs
https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/hodgkin-lymphoma
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/21199-lymphatic-system
https://www.cancer.org
https://ascopost.com/issues/september-15-2012-lymph-supplement/management-of-a-
patient-with-hodgkin-lymphoma-following-failure-of-autologous-stem-cell-transplant/
Description of how each of the structures included in or associated with the lymphatic
system work in the healthy state
The lymphatic system is a network of tubules, organs and tissue which filter unwanted
things out of the body like toxins and collect and return lymph to blood circulation. Lymph is
a clear fluid made in the body and travels through the bloodstream. It is made blood plasma
which contains oxygen, proteins and nutrients which are flushed around to nourish the
tissues in the body. The lymph leaves the bloodstream through blood vessels at the capillary
beds. The lymphatic system has 3 main functions. One is to balance the levels of fluid in the
body between the blood and the bodies tissues. The second is that it is part of the immune
system, therefore is crucial for fighting infection and disease. Finally, it eases the absorption
of fats and dissolved nutrients from the digestive system.
Lymphatic organs in normal functioning
The lymphatic organs are the: appendix, peyers patches, thymus gland, spleen, lymph nodes
and tonsils.
The appendix is found in the lower right abdomen. It is one of the less essential body organs
needed for normal functioning. The function of the appendix is unknown, but it is thought to
be useful for good digestion by storing useful bacteria for the body. Although the reason for
the appendix is unknown for normal functioning, if the appendix becomes inflamed it causes
appendicitis. This is abnormal functioning and is where the appendix becomes inflamed
causing severe pain in the abdomen, vomiting and a fever. This abnormality leads to surgery
being needed to treat the patient where the appendix is removed via open surgery or
laparoscopy (keyhole surgery). The appendix’s role in the lymphatic system is that it
contains lymphoid tissue which can remove and kill bacteria before it reaches the walls of
the intestines which can cause problems.
Peyers patches are groups of lymphoid which are stored in the mucus membrane which
lines the small intestine. They assist the digestive system and the gut by helping to transport
bacteria and antigens which could cause harm to the intestines. They are essentially a
defence system for the intestines and are follicles found in the epithelium of the mucous
membrane. If there re abnormalities in the peyers patches, then they cannot filter out the
harmful bacteria in the intestines which can lead to development of disorders such as
Crohn’s disease and graft-versus-host disease. However, these disorders don’t onset
necessarily from dysfunction in peyers patches it could be the disease causing
abnormalities.
, Unit 8: physiology of human body systems
Assignment 2- Aisha Towle
The thymus gland is in the chest and is one of the main glands in the lymphatic system. The
thymus is where cells mature. These cells are known as T cells which are a type of white
blood cell crucial for a good immune system and fighting off diseases. With an abnormal
thymus gland which is usually where the thymus has grown into an abnormal size (larger
than normal) the immune system is severely weakened. Diseases which onset from an
abnormal thymus gland are pure red cell aplasia which is a type of anaemia therefore
affecting red blood cells. Another disease common with thymus disorders is myasthenia
gravis which is a neuromuscular disease affecting the skeletal system. The thymus gland is
responsible for normal body functioning and is one which causes severe impact upon the
body when it is abnormal.
The spleen is the main and largest lymphatic organs. It is in the left side of the body behind
the ribs and is an important part of the bodies defence system. The function of the spleen is
to maintain levels of blood cells specifically platelets, red blood cells and white blood cells
which are all key parts of the bodies immune system. The spleen has white blood cells in it
which are infection-fighting cells and help to prevent germs causing infections. If the spleen
isn’t functioning properly then there is a decreased count of white blood cells, red blood
cells and platelets; it can lead to anaemia (RBC reduction), bruising easily (platelet
reduction) and infection rate is higher (decreased WBC). Normal functioning of the spleen
wouldn’t include pain which can occur if the spleen is damaged which can happen if there is
a direct impact to the abdomen. The spleen may also become enlarged after some
infections such as leukaemia.
Lymph nodes are found in the armpits and neck mainly, however, are found in other places.
They cleanse the lymph as lots of substances pass through them. The nodes contain
lymphocytes which kill foreign substances and harmful germs in the body fluids. They are a
key part of the defence system for the body and in a healthy state they help to fight off
infections by engulfing pathogens.
The tonsils are also part of the lymphatic system found in the throat. They are the first
method of protecting the body in its defence system. In a healthy body, the tonsils engulf
pathogens from the air we breathe in and the food we eat, which prevents bacteria entering
the body and causing illness. They contain white blood cells which fight off the germs which
enter in through the mouth. If there is a problem with the tonsils it is usually in the palatine
tonsils which become inflamed causing tonsillitis. Severe cases of tonsillitis may cause the
sufferer to undergo surgery to have the tonsils removed.
Description of the formation of lymph
The formation of lymph comes from fluid that excretes through capillaries walls which are
very thin, this fluid then flows into the body's tissues. The fluid holds oxygen, proteins, and
other nutrients that nourish the tissues. Most of the fluid re-enters the capillaries and some
of it drains into the lymphatic vessels which then becomes lymph.
The role of lymph
Lymph is needed to aid the bodies defence system; it has a key role in fighting off infections.
It does this by pushing lymph fluid into the lymph nodes and destroying pathogens that
enter the body which could contain harmful bacteria or toxins. By destroying these harmful
Assignment 2- Aisha Towle
References
https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/hodgkin-lymphoma
https://www.macmillan.org.uk/cancer-information-and-support/treatments-and-drugs
https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/hodgkin-lymphoma
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/21199-lymphatic-system
https://www.cancer.org
https://ascopost.com/issues/september-15-2012-lymph-supplement/management-of-a-
patient-with-hodgkin-lymphoma-following-failure-of-autologous-stem-cell-transplant/
Description of how each of the structures included in or associated with the lymphatic
system work in the healthy state
The lymphatic system is a network of tubules, organs and tissue which filter unwanted
things out of the body like toxins and collect and return lymph to blood circulation. Lymph is
a clear fluid made in the body and travels through the bloodstream. It is made blood plasma
which contains oxygen, proteins and nutrients which are flushed around to nourish the
tissues in the body. The lymph leaves the bloodstream through blood vessels at the capillary
beds. The lymphatic system has 3 main functions. One is to balance the levels of fluid in the
body between the blood and the bodies tissues. The second is that it is part of the immune
system, therefore is crucial for fighting infection and disease. Finally, it eases the absorption
of fats and dissolved nutrients from the digestive system.
Lymphatic organs in normal functioning
The lymphatic organs are the: appendix, peyers patches, thymus gland, spleen, lymph nodes
and tonsils.
The appendix is found in the lower right abdomen. It is one of the less essential body organs
needed for normal functioning. The function of the appendix is unknown, but it is thought to
be useful for good digestion by storing useful bacteria for the body. Although the reason for
the appendix is unknown for normal functioning, if the appendix becomes inflamed it causes
appendicitis. This is abnormal functioning and is where the appendix becomes inflamed
causing severe pain in the abdomen, vomiting and a fever. This abnormality leads to surgery
being needed to treat the patient where the appendix is removed via open surgery or
laparoscopy (keyhole surgery). The appendix’s role in the lymphatic system is that it
contains lymphoid tissue which can remove and kill bacteria before it reaches the walls of
the intestines which can cause problems.
Peyers patches are groups of lymphoid which are stored in the mucus membrane which
lines the small intestine. They assist the digestive system and the gut by helping to transport
bacteria and antigens which could cause harm to the intestines. They are essentially a
defence system for the intestines and are follicles found in the epithelium of the mucous
membrane. If there re abnormalities in the peyers patches, then they cannot filter out the
harmful bacteria in the intestines which can lead to development of disorders such as
Crohn’s disease and graft-versus-host disease. However, these disorders don’t onset
necessarily from dysfunction in peyers patches it could be the disease causing
abnormalities.
, Unit 8: physiology of human body systems
Assignment 2- Aisha Towle
The thymus gland is in the chest and is one of the main glands in the lymphatic system. The
thymus is where cells mature. These cells are known as T cells which are a type of white
blood cell crucial for a good immune system and fighting off diseases. With an abnormal
thymus gland which is usually where the thymus has grown into an abnormal size (larger
than normal) the immune system is severely weakened. Diseases which onset from an
abnormal thymus gland are pure red cell aplasia which is a type of anaemia therefore
affecting red blood cells. Another disease common with thymus disorders is myasthenia
gravis which is a neuromuscular disease affecting the skeletal system. The thymus gland is
responsible for normal body functioning and is one which causes severe impact upon the
body when it is abnormal.
The spleen is the main and largest lymphatic organs. It is in the left side of the body behind
the ribs and is an important part of the bodies defence system. The function of the spleen is
to maintain levels of blood cells specifically platelets, red blood cells and white blood cells
which are all key parts of the bodies immune system. The spleen has white blood cells in it
which are infection-fighting cells and help to prevent germs causing infections. If the spleen
isn’t functioning properly then there is a decreased count of white blood cells, red blood
cells and platelets; it can lead to anaemia (RBC reduction), bruising easily (platelet
reduction) and infection rate is higher (decreased WBC). Normal functioning of the spleen
wouldn’t include pain which can occur if the spleen is damaged which can happen if there is
a direct impact to the abdomen. The spleen may also become enlarged after some
infections such as leukaemia.
Lymph nodes are found in the armpits and neck mainly, however, are found in other places.
They cleanse the lymph as lots of substances pass through them. The nodes contain
lymphocytes which kill foreign substances and harmful germs in the body fluids. They are a
key part of the defence system for the body and in a healthy state they help to fight off
infections by engulfing pathogens.
The tonsils are also part of the lymphatic system found in the throat. They are the first
method of protecting the body in its defence system. In a healthy body, the tonsils engulf
pathogens from the air we breathe in and the food we eat, which prevents bacteria entering
the body and causing illness. They contain white blood cells which fight off the germs which
enter in through the mouth. If there is a problem with the tonsils it is usually in the palatine
tonsils which become inflamed causing tonsillitis. Severe cases of tonsillitis may cause the
sufferer to undergo surgery to have the tonsils removed.
Description of the formation of lymph
The formation of lymph comes from fluid that excretes through capillaries walls which are
very thin, this fluid then flows into the body's tissues. The fluid holds oxygen, proteins, and
other nutrients that nourish the tissues. Most of the fluid re-enters the capillaries and some
of it drains into the lymphatic vessels which then becomes lymph.
The role of lymph
Lymph is needed to aid the bodies defence system; it has a key role in fighting off infections.
It does this by pushing lymph fluid into the lymph nodes and destroying pathogens that
enter the body which could contain harmful bacteria or toxins. By destroying these harmful
