NOMADIC EMPIRES
1. Introduction :
Russian and Marxist scholars studied Mongols’ tribal-feudal shift; differing texts made later
scholars study languages for true meanings.
Russian & Marxist scholars linked Mongols’ rise to a tribal-feudal shift
Bartold’s views were censored till the 1960s.
Mongol texts vary by language, so scholars studied them to find real meanings.
1. Introduction
• Möngke (1251–60) told Louis IX (1226–70) that one Eternal Sky rules and Genghis Khan is its chosen
Lord.
• He warned that when all unite in peace, Heaven’s will shall be known.
• If rulers ignore Heaven’s decree and fight, Mongols will act with its power.
• Batu’s (1236–41) campaigns ruined Russia, took Poland and Hungary, and reached Vienna.
• Chinese, the Middle Easters, & Europeans saw Mongol rule as God’s wrath & a start of Judgement Day.
2. In 1220, Bukhara was captured by Genghis Khan. According to Juwaini, a Persian chronicler, After
conquering the city, Genghis Khan told the wealthy: “You sinned, and I am God’s punishment.” An
eyewitness said the Mongols destroyed the walls, killed, plundered, and then left.
3. Social political background
• Mongols were diverse, linked by language to Tatars, Khitan, Manchus, and Turkic tribes.
• Some were pastoralists raising animals in Central Asian steppes, others were hunters in Siberian forests
trading furs.
• The region had harsh winters and short summers, making farming rare.
• Sparse resources kept population low; Mongols lived in tents and moved with herds.
• Society was divided by wealth; rich families had more animals, land, and power.
• Disasters like cold or drought caused raids and fights over pasture.
• Families made small, short alliances; Genghis Khan built a strong, lasting confederation.
• Mongols ruled over farming societies in China, Iran, and Europe unlike their own.
• They traded furs and horses for Chinese goods but also fought for better terms.
• China suffered from nomad raids and built the Great Wall for protection
4. The great Central Asian steppe alliances—Hsiung-nu, Juan-Juan, Epthalite Huns, T’u-chueh, Uighurs, and
Khitan—were Turkic and Mongol groups differing in size, region, and impact on China.
5. Carrer of Genghis khan
Genghis Khan, born c.1162 near Onon River, was Temujin, son of Yesugei of Kiyat clan.
• His father died early; his mother Oelun-eke raised him and siblings in hardship.
• Temujin was enslaved; his wife Borte was kidnapped and he recovered her.
• He made allies: Boghurchu, blood-brother Jamuqa, and Tughril/Ong Khan.
• In 1180s–1190s, he defeated Jamuqa, Tatars, Kereyits, and Ong Khan by 1203.
• By 1206, after defeating Naiman and Jamuqa, he became steppe leader and was titled Genghis Khan.
• He reorganized Mongols into a disciplined army for campaigns.
• He conquered China: Hsi Hsia 1209, Great Wall 1213, Peking 1215, Chin until 1234.
• After 1218, empire reached Amu Darya, Transoxiana, Khwarazm; Sultan Muhammad faced Mongol
wrath.
• 1219–1221: Otrar, Bukhara, Samarqand, Balkh, Gurganj, Merv, Nishapur, Herat surrendered or destroyed.
• Mongols pursued Sultan Muhammad into Azerbaijan, defeated Russians, encircled Caspian, and followed
his son into Afghanistan and Sindh.
• Genghis Khan died 1227; army excelled via cavalry, archery, winter campaigns, siege engines, naphtha
bombardment.
, 6. Genghis Khan’s attacks killed many people in cities that resisted him. Some big numbers: Nishapur (1220)
1,747,000; Herat (1222) 1,600,000; Baghdad (1258) 800,000. Smaller towns: Nasa 70,000; Baihaq 70,000;
Tun (Kuhistan) 12,000. Persian writer Juwaini said 1,300,000 died in Merv. He counted 100,000 bodies
per day for 13 days.
7. Mongol after Genghis khan
• After 1203, Mongol campaigns succeeded, but by 1260s western expansion slowed after retreat from
Hungary and defeat by Egypt..
• Jochi & Ogodei descendants focused on succession and Great Khan control over European campaigns.
• They were marginalized by Toluyid descendants of Genghis Khan.
• Under Mongke, Toluyid campaigns advanced in Iran during 1250s.
• By 1260s, Toluyid focus on China diverted troops, weakening western campaigns and causing Egyptian
defeat.
• Conflicts between Jochid and Toluyid on Russian-Iranian frontier ended Mongol campaigns in Europe.
8. Social, Political and Military Organisation
All adult Mongol males bore arms and formed the army when needed.
Unifying tribes and campaigns added new members, including willing Uighurs and defeated
Kereyits.
Genghis Khan erased old tribal identities and organised the army in decimal units: 10, 100, 1,000,
10,000 (tuman).
Tribal groups were divided and redistributed; leaving units without permission was punished.
Tumans mixed members from different tribes, integrating clans and giving them a new identity.
Units served under his four sons and captains (noyan); loyal followers became blood-brothers
(Anda) or bondsmen (naukar).
Aristocracy status came from closeness to Genghis Khan, not old clan rights.
His four sons governed the conquered people as four ulus; territories remained fluid.
Jochi received the Russian steppes; Chaghatai got the Transoxianian steppe.
Ogodei became Great Khan and set his capital at Karakorum.
Toluy received Mongolia; military units of each prince were placed in every ulus.
Quriltais reinforced family authority, deciding campaigns, plunder, pastures, and succession.
9. Social, military and political organisation
All adult Mongol males bore arms and formed the army when needed.
Unification of tribes and campaigns added new members, including willing Uighurs and defeated
Kereyits.
Genghis Khan erased old tribal identities and organised the army in decimal units of 10, 100,
1,000, and 10,000 (tuman).
Tribal groups were divided into new units; leaving without permission was punished.
Tumans mixed members from different tribes, integrating clans and creating a new identity.
Units served under his four sons and captains (noyan); loyal followers became blood-brothers
(Anda) or bondsmen (naukar).
Aristocracy status came from closeness to Genghis Khan; sons governed conquered people as
four ulus with fluid territories.
Jochi got Russian steppes, Chaghatai Transoxianian steppe, Ogedei became Great Khan at
Karakorum, Toluy received Mongolia.
Military contingents of each prince were in every ulus; quriltais decided campaigns, plunder,
pastures, and succession.
Genghis Khan created a courier system (yam); nomads contributed a tenth of their herd as
qubcur tax for fast communication.
1. Introduction :
Russian and Marxist scholars studied Mongols’ tribal-feudal shift; differing texts made later
scholars study languages for true meanings.
Russian & Marxist scholars linked Mongols’ rise to a tribal-feudal shift
Bartold’s views were censored till the 1960s.
Mongol texts vary by language, so scholars studied them to find real meanings.
1. Introduction
• Möngke (1251–60) told Louis IX (1226–70) that one Eternal Sky rules and Genghis Khan is its chosen
Lord.
• He warned that when all unite in peace, Heaven’s will shall be known.
• If rulers ignore Heaven’s decree and fight, Mongols will act with its power.
• Batu’s (1236–41) campaigns ruined Russia, took Poland and Hungary, and reached Vienna.
• Chinese, the Middle Easters, & Europeans saw Mongol rule as God’s wrath & a start of Judgement Day.
2. In 1220, Bukhara was captured by Genghis Khan. According to Juwaini, a Persian chronicler, After
conquering the city, Genghis Khan told the wealthy: “You sinned, and I am God’s punishment.” An
eyewitness said the Mongols destroyed the walls, killed, plundered, and then left.
3. Social political background
• Mongols were diverse, linked by language to Tatars, Khitan, Manchus, and Turkic tribes.
• Some were pastoralists raising animals in Central Asian steppes, others were hunters in Siberian forests
trading furs.
• The region had harsh winters and short summers, making farming rare.
• Sparse resources kept population low; Mongols lived in tents and moved with herds.
• Society was divided by wealth; rich families had more animals, land, and power.
• Disasters like cold or drought caused raids and fights over pasture.
• Families made small, short alliances; Genghis Khan built a strong, lasting confederation.
• Mongols ruled over farming societies in China, Iran, and Europe unlike their own.
• They traded furs and horses for Chinese goods but also fought for better terms.
• China suffered from nomad raids and built the Great Wall for protection
4. The great Central Asian steppe alliances—Hsiung-nu, Juan-Juan, Epthalite Huns, T’u-chueh, Uighurs, and
Khitan—were Turkic and Mongol groups differing in size, region, and impact on China.
5. Carrer of Genghis khan
Genghis Khan, born c.1162 near Onon River, was Temujin, son of Yesugei of Kiyat clan.
• His father died early; his mother Oelun-eke raised him and siblings in hardship.
• Temujin was enslaved; his wife Borte was kidnapped and he recovered her.
• He made allies: Boghurchu, blood-brother Jamuqa, and Tughril/Ong Khan.
• In 1180s–1190s, he defeated Jamuqa, Tatars, Kereyits, and Ong Khan by 1203.
• By 1206, after defeating Naiman and Jamuqa, he became steppe leader and was titled Genghis Khan.
• He reorganized Mongols into a disciplined army for campaigns.
• He conquered China: Hsi Hsia 1209, Great Wall 1213, Peking 1215, Chin until 1234.
• After 1218, empire reached Amu Darya, Transoxiana, Khwarazm; Sultan Muhammad faced Mongol
wrath.
• 1219–1221: Otrar, Bukhara, Samarqand, Balkh, Gurganj, Merv, Nishapur, Herat surrendered or destroyed.
• Mongols pursued Sultan Muhammad into Azerbaijan, defeated Russians, encircled Caspian, and followed
his son into Afghanistan and Sindh.
• Genghis Khan died 1227; army excelled via cavalry, archery, winter campaigns, siege engines, naphtha
bombardment.
, 6. Genghis Khan’s attacks killed many people in cities that resisted him. Some big numbers: Nishapur (1220)
1,747,000; Herat (1222) 1,600,000; Baghdad (1258) 800,000. Smaller towns: Nasa 70,000; Baihaq 70,000;
Tun (Kuhistan) 12,000. Persian writer Juwaini said 1,300,000 died in Merv. He counted 100,000 bodies
per day for 13 days.
7. Mongol after Genghis khan
• After 1203, Mongol campaigns succeeded, but by 1260s western expansion slowed after retreat from
Hungary and defeat by Egypt..
• Jochi & Ogodei descendants focused on succession and Great Khan control over European campaigns.
• They were marginalized by Toluyid descendants of Genghis Khan.
• Under Mongke, Toluyid campaigns advanced in Iran during 1250s.
• By 1260s, Toluyid focus on China diverted troops, weakening western campaigns and causing Egyptian
defeat.
• Conflicts between Jochid and Toluyid on Russian-Iranian frontier ended Mongol campaigns in Europe.
8. Social, Political and Military Organisation
All adult Mongol males bore arms and formed the army when needed.
Unifying tribes and campaigns added new members, including willing Uighurs and defeated
Kereyits.
Genghis Khan erased old tribal identities and organised the army in decimal units: 10, 100, 1,000,
10,000 (tuman).
Tribal groups were divided and redistributed; leaving units without permission was punished.
Tumans mixed members from different tribes, integrating clans and giving them a new identity.
Units served under his four sons and captains (noyan); loyal followers became blood-brothers
(Anda) or bondsmen (naukar).
Aristocracy status came from closeness to Genghis Khan, not old clan rights.
His four sons governed the conquered people as four ulus; territories remained fluid.
Jochi received the Russian steppes; Chaghatai got the Transoxianian steppe.
Ogodei became Great Khan and set his capital at Karakorum.
Toluy received Mongolia; military units of each prince were placed in every ulus.
Quriltais reinforced family authority, deciding campaigns, plunder, pastures, and succession.
9. Social, military and political organisation
All adult Mongol males bore arms and formed the army when needed.
Unification of tribes and campaigns added new members, including willing Uighurs and defeated
Kereyits.
Genghis Khan erased old tribal identities and organised the army in decimal units of 10, 100,
1,000, and 10,000 (tuman).
Tribal groups were divided into new units; leaving without permission was punished.
Tumans mixed members from different tribes, integrating clans and creating a new identity.
Units served under his four sons and captains (noyan); loyal followers became blood-brothers
(Anda) or bondsmen (naukar).
Aristocracy status came from closeness to Genghis Khan; sons governed conquered people as
four ulus with fluid territories.
Jochi got Russian steppes, Chaghatai Transoxianian steppe, Ogedei became Great Khan at
Karakorum, Toluy received Mongolia.
Military contingents of each prince were in every ulus; quriltais decided campaigns, plunder,
pastures, and succession.
Genghis Khan created a courier system (yam); nomads contributed a tenth of their herd as
qubcur tax for fast communication.
