Clinical Oncology and Renal Pathophysiology Examination: Cancer Genetics,
Tumor Biology, Benign Tumors, Malignant Tumors, Cancer Hallmarks, Tumor
Initiation, Tumor Promotion, Tumor Progression, Metastasis Mechanisms,
Immunologic Surveillance, Cancer Cachexia, Diagnostic Biopsy Techniques,
Cancer Grading Systems, TNM Cancer Staging, Clinical Cancer Staging, Cancer
Screening Guidelines, Surgical Oncology Management, Radiation Therapy
Principles, Chemotherapy Pharmacology, Chemotherapy Toxicities, Oncologic
Emergencies, Acute Kidney Injury Pathophysiology, RIFLE AKI Classification,
Chronic Kidney Disease Progression, Electrolyte Imbalance Disorders, Renal
Replacement Therapy, Hemodialysis Treatment, Peritoneal Dialysis Therapy
Exam Questions Verified and Provided with Complete A+ Graded Rationales
Latest Updated 2026
What is cancer?
uncontrolled growth of normal cells
What does it mean to say cancer is genetic?
All cancers are caused by a genetic mutation
Characteristics of benign tumors
*Intact skin surface
*non-invasive
*grow slower
*Inside a capsule
*Homogeneous cut surface
*expansile growth
,Characteristics of malignant tumors
*Invasive growth
*grow fast
*Ulceration of skin
*lymphatic invasion
*inhomogeneous cut surface
*necrosis
*hemorrhage
*vessel invasion
Fundamental Characteristics of Cancer (8 hallmarks of cancer)
1. sustaining proliferative signaling
2. Evading growth suppressors
3. Activating invasion and metastasis
4. Enabling replicative immortality
5. Inducing angiogenesis
6. Resisting cell death
What does it mean to say cancer cels sustain proliferative signaling?
They stimulate their own growth
What are the stages in the development of cancer?
1. Initiation
2. Promotion
3. Progression
4. metastasis
,What is the initiation stage?
Irreversible genetic mutation in stem cell/progenitor cell
What is the promotion stage?
1. Clonal expansion of initiated cells within generalized hyperplasia
2. Outgrowth of pre-malignant tumors
What is the progression stage?
Malignant conversion to invasive carcinoma
immunologic surveillance
1. the response of the immune system to antigens of the malignant cells
2. Constant monitoring of normal tissues by NK cells, cytotoxic T cells, macrophages, and B cells
What is immunologic escape?
Some cancer cells evade the immune system because they arise from normal human cells
What is metastasis?
spread of cancer to a distant site
What are the most common sites of metastasis?
, liver, bone, lungs
Where does colon cancer tend to metastasize to?
liver
Where does breast cancer metastasize to?
bones
What is cancer anorexia?
loss of appetite of desire to eat
What is cancer cachexia?
wasting syndrome that results in weakness and involuntary weight loss (due to increased metabolism,
not related to caloric intake)
What is the highest risk factor for cancer?
age
What are the elderly at higher risk for cancer?
1. Attributed to decreased immune response and greater carcinogen exposure
Why may the elderly have a delayed detection of cancer?
Tumor Biology, Benign Tumors, Malignant Tumors, Cancer Hallmarks, Tumor
Initiation, Tumor Promotion, Tumor Progression, Metastasis Mechanisms,
Immunologic Surveillance, Cancer Cachexia, Diagnostic Biopsy Techniques,
Cancer Grading Systems, TNM Cancer Staging, Clinical Cancer Staging, Cancer
Screening Guidelines, Surgical Oncology Management, Radiation Therapy
Principles, Chemotherapy Pharmacology, Chemotherapy Toxicities, Oncologic
Emergencies, Acute Kidney Injury Pathophysiology, RIFLE AKI Classification,
Chronic Kidney Disease Progression, Electrolyte Imbalance Disorders, Renal
Replacement Therapy, Hemodialysis Treatment, Peritoneal Dialysis Therapy
Exam Questions Verified and Provided with Complete A+ Graded Rationales
Latest Updated 2026
What is cancer?
uncontrolled growth of normal cells
What does it mean to say cancer is genetic?
All cancers are caused by a genetic mutation
Characteristics of benign tumors
*Intact skin surface
*non-invasive
*grow slower
*Inside a capsule
*Homogeneous cut surface
*expansile growth
,Characteristics of malignant tumors
*Invasive growth
*grow fast
*Ulceration of skin
*lymphatic invasion
*inhomogeneous cut surface
*necrosis
*hemorrhage
*vessel invasion
Fundamental Characteristics of Cancer (8 hallmarks of cancer)
1. sustaining proliferative signaling
2. Evading growth suppressors
3. Activating invasion and metastasis
4. Enabling replicative immortality
5. Inducing angiogenesis
6. Resisting cell death
What does it mean to say cancer cels sustain proliferative signaling?
They stimulate their own growth
What are the stages in the development of cancer?
1. Initiation
2. Promotion
3. Progression
4. metastasis
,What is the initiation stage?
Irreversible genetic mutation in stem cell/progenitor cell
What is the promotion stage?
1. Clonal expansion of initiated cells within generalized hyperplasia
2. Outgrowth of pre-malignant tumors
What is the progression stage?
Malignant conversion to invasive carcinoma
immunologic surveillance
1. the response of the immune system to antigens of the malignant cells
2. Constant monitoring of normal tissues by NK cells, cytotoxic T cells, macrophages, and B cells
What is immunologic escape?
Some cancer cells evade the immune system because they arise from normal human cells
What is metastasis?
spread of cancer to a distant site
What are the most common sites of metastasis?
, liver, bone, lungs
Where does colon cancer tend to metastasize to?
liver
Where does breast cancer metastasize to?
bones
What is cancer anorexia?
loss of appetite of desire to eat
What is cancer cachexia?
wasting syndrome that results in weakness and involuntary weight loss (due to increased metabolism,
not related to caloric intake)
What is the highest risk factor for cancer?
age
What are the elderly at higher risk for cancer?
1. Attributed to decreased immune response and greater carcinogen exposure
Why may the elderly have a delayed detection of cancer?
