Diabetes Mellitus and Acid-Base Balance Exam: Pathophysiology, Hormonal Regulation (Insulin and Glucagon), Pancreatic Alpha and Beta Cell Function, Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes, Risk Factors, Hyperglycemia and Hypoglycemia Clinical Manifestations, HgbA1c In

Diabetes Mellitus and Acid-Base Balance Exam: Pathophysiology, Hormonal Regulation (Insulin and Glucagon), Pancreatic Alpha and Beta Cell Function, Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes, Risk Factors, Hyperglycemia and Hypoglycemia Clinical Manifestations, HgbA1c Interpretation, Fasting Blood Glucose Monitoring, Acute Complications (DKA, HHS/HHNK), Chronic Complications (Neuropathy, Nephropathy, Retinopathy, Vascular Damage), Pharmacologic Management (Insulin, Oral Hypoglycemics, Metformin, Methylxanthines), Nutritional Considerations, Stress and Steroid-Induced Hyperglycemia Exam Questions Verified and Provided with Complete A+ Graded Rationales Latest Updated 2026 alpha cell glucagon-secreting cell of pancreatic islets of Langerhans *release glucagon in response to low blood sugar and the absence of insulin. *release this glucagon to tell the liver to release glycogen or break down glycogen to release glucose into the bloodstream to bring our blood sugar up(or keep in normal range) beta cell insulin-secreting cell in pancreatic islets of Langerhans destroys blood vessels increase in blood sugar does this to the blood vessels ATP (energy) you need O2 and glucose to make this glucagon alpha cells detect really low blood sugar which will release _______. this hormone goes to the liver to break down glycogen (for energy) cancel each other out if working properly, alpha and beta will: type 1 DM no functioning beta cells type 2 DM can control with diet alpha cells if your body is not making it's own insulin, _________ think they don't have insulin and will keep giving out glucagon (increase blood sugar) --don't get a sense of hunger then never resolved metformin Biguanide; allows the cells to use insulin they already have better. does not directly lower blood sugar. 70-110 fasting blood glucose 4-5.9% HgbA1c result for non-diabetics 7% HgbA1c for good diabetic control pt's with DM steroid therapy renal failure(not excreting blood glucose) pregnancy (gestational diabetes) Causes: HIGH fasting blood glucose -Liver disease (alpha cells will get the message that you have low blood sugar. alpha cells send out glucagon but then glucagon is sent to a liver that is not functional--liver doesn't break down glycogen and release glucagon into blood so then they become hypOglycemic.) -Insulin reactions ( overdose on insulin or taken too early before meal.) Causes: LOW fasting blood glucose DM Pregnancy Causes: HIGH HgbA1C chronic blood loss - might be falsely low (losing blood and that A1c is on the Hgb) chronic renal failure- not making enough RBCs Causes: LOW HgbA1c their beta cells and whether it's a complete absence (with NO insulin production or diminished function of the beta cells so they don't make sufficient insulin --sugar stays in bloodstream and can't be transported into the cells by insulin to make energy so the blood becomes high in glucose. pt's with DM have a problem with increase WBC increase glucose ---body can make endogenous steroids in response to stress. in short period of time: reduces inflammation and fight infection (good for SHORT term) -increases sugar because it's in response to stress so it's trying to help survive a stressful situation exogenous steroid therapy HgbA1c amount of sugar on the Hgb in the RBCs drawn every 3 months indicative of long term high blood sugar glucagon insulin two key players in DM symptoms of hyperglycemia (polyuria, polydipsia, polyphasia) DKA - (type 1) acute metabolic decompensation; can no longer compensate for the lack of insulin (acidotic state) HHS- type 2; or HHNK. become highly concentrated (hyperosmolar) clinical manifestations of HIGH fasting blood glucose symptoms of hypoglycemia clinical manifestations of LOW fasting blood glucose and HgbA1c: