N NU 545 EXAM 1, 2 & 3 N
U Study Guide U
5 5
This Study Guide contains:
= = =
4 ✓ NU=545=EXAM=1,=2=&=3=Study=Guide
✓ verified=questions=and=Answers=with=Reference=pg.
4
✓ key=concepts
5 ✓ advanced=clinical=reasoning.
✓ Designed=to=help=nursing=students=master=course=outcomes 5
✓ prepare=for=midterm=or=final=exams=with=confidence.
E E
, lOMoARcPSD| 51648332
Study=Guide=Unit=1
THE=CELL,=GENES=and=GENE-EVIRONMENT=INTERACTION,=and=MECHANISMS=of=SELF-DEFENSE
Section=1:=SPECIAL=NOTES=AND=TIPS=ABOUT=THE=STUDY=GUIDE
The=page=numbers=listed=are=for=the=eBook=textbook,=and=the=key=search=terms=can=be=used=with=the="find"=function.=If=you=s
ee=the= abbreviation,="fig,"=that=means=there=is=a=figure=associated=with=that=page=number.=If=you=see=the=abbreviation,="tab,"=t
hat=means=there= is=a=table=associated=with=that=page=number.=If=you=see=the=abbreviation,=“img,”=that=means=there=is=a=picture
=or=image=associated=with= that=page=number.
Some=abbreviations=to=know:
H+ + Hydrogen=ions
Na Sodium
Cl- Chloride
H2O2 Hydrogen=peroxide
H2O Water
O2 Oxygen
K+ Potassium
Ca2+ Calcium
Fe2+ Iron
Zn+ Zinc
HCO3- Bicarbonate
H2CO3 Carbonic=acid
HPO42- Hydrogen=phosphate
Mg2+ Magnesium
NaCl Sodium=chloride
NaHCO3 Sodium=bicarbonate
Do=not=mix=up=INTRA=with=INTER.=Intracellular=means=within=the=cell,=whereas=intercellular=means=between=cells.
Do=not=mix=up=ADSORB=and=ABSORB.=Adsorb=means=the=adhesion=of=atoms,=ions,=or=molecules=from=a=gas,=liquid,=or=d
issolved= solid=to=a=surface,=whereas=absorb=means=a=fluid=is=dissolved=by=or=permeates=a=liquid=or=solid.
CHAPTER=1
What=is=metabolic=absorption?
(p.=4,=eBook=key=search=term:="all=cells=take=in")
Metabolic=absorption=–=cells=taking=in=and=using=nutrients=and=other=substances=from=their=surroundings.
For=instance,=cells=of=the=intestine=and=the=kidney=are=specialized=to=carry=out=absorption.=Cells=of=the=kidney=tubules=r
eabsorb= fluids=and=synthesize=proteins,=while=intestinal=epithelial=cells=absorb=fluid=and=synthesize=protein=enzymes.
Cells=become=specialized=through=the=process=of=differentiation,=or=maturation=to=eventually=perform=one=of=the=8=chi
ef= cellular=functions=(including=movement,=conductivity,=metabolic=absorption,=secretion,=excretion,=respiration,=reprod
uction,= and=communication).
During=cell=injury,=what=is=released=that=is=capable=of=cellular=autodigestion?
(p.=17,=&=64-fig.,=eBook=key=search=term:="lysosomes=(lyso")
Lysosomes=are=saclike=structures=that=originate=from=the=Golgi=complex,=and=contain=more=than=40=digestive=enzymes=
=== called=hydrolases.=They=function=as=the=intracellular=digestive=system=and=are=capable=of=digesting=most=cellular=co
nstituents
completely=to=their=basic=components=(break=down=proteins,=lipids,=nucleic=acids,=and=carbohydrates=down=into=amino=acids,=fa
tty= acids,=and=sugars).=Disruption=of=the=lysosomal=membrane=by=various=treatments=or=cellular=injury=leads=to=a=release=of=th
e=lysosomal= enzymes=or=hydrolases,=causing=cellular=self-digestion=(or=autodigestion).
Lysosomal=storage=diseases:=Pompe=disease,=Tay-Sachs=disease,=and=gout.
Lysosomes=are=crucial=for=normal=digestion=of=cellular=nutrients,=intercellular=debris,=and=potentially=harmful=extrace
llular= substances=that=must=be=removed=from=the=body.
As=cells=complete=their=life=span=and=die,=lysosomes=digest=the=resultant=cellular=debris=in=a=process=called=autodigestion.
Downloaded=by=Benjamin=Luca=()
, lOMoARcPSD| 51648332
In=living=cells,=cellular=debris=is=encapsulated=within=a=vesicle=that=reacts=with=a=lysosome=to=complete=its=degradation=in=a
=process= called=autophagy,=which=promotes=homeostasis=through=continuous=biosynthesis=and=cell=turnover.
Where=is=the=genetic=info=contained=in=the=cell?
(p.=7=eBook;=Search=term="two=plia The=nucleus=contains=the=nucleolus,=a=small=dense=structure=composed=largely
ble= membranes=comprise") =of= RNA,=most=of=the=cellular=DNA,=and=the=DNA-
binding=proteins=(the=histones)=that= regulate=its=activity.
The=primary=functions=of=the=nucleus=are=cell=division=and=control=of=ge
NUCLEUS netic= information,=as=well=as=the=replication=and=repair=of=DNA=and=the
(located=in=the=center=of=the=cell) = transcription=of=the=information=stored=in=DNA.
Remember:=prokaryotes'=nuclear=material=is=not=encased=within=a=nuc
PRIMARY=FUNCTION=of=NUCLEUS== lear= membrane=and=they=do=not=contain=histones.
Cell=division=and=control=of=genet Histones=bind=to=DNA=to=fold=into=chromosomes,=which=is=essential=for
ic= information =cell= division=of=eukaryotes.
Other=functions:=replication=and=repair=o
f= DNA;=transcription=of=information=store
d=in= DNA
Cell=membranes=contain=which=major=chemical=components?
(p.=29-40=eBook,=8th=ed,=eBook=key=search=term:="membrane=composition")
Cell=membranes=are=composed=of=a=lipid=bilayer,=where=lipids=and=proteins=are=not=uniformly=distributed=but=can=separate=into=
discrete= units=called=microdomains.=Different=cell=membranes=may=have=different=ratios=of=lipids=to=proteins;=for=instance,=intrac
ellular= membranes=may=have=a=higher=percentage=of=proteins=than=do=plasma=membranes.=Lipids=and=proteins=act=as=the=“mole
cular=glue”=for= the=structural=integrity=of=the=membrane.
Lipid=molecules=are=said=to=be=polar=or=amphipathic,=which=means=part=hydrophobic=(uncharged=or="water=hating"
=are= protected=from=water)=and=part=hydrophilic=(charged=or="water=loving"=and=submerged=in=water).=These=two=i
ncompatible= solubilities=organize=into=the=lipid=bilayer.
The=lipid=bilayer=serves=as=a=barrier=to=the=diffusion=of=water=and=hydrophilic=substances,=while=allowing=lipid-
soluble= molecules,=such=as=oxygen=(O2)=and=carbon=dioxide=(CO2)=to=diffuse=through=readily.= The=most=abundant=li
pids=are= phospholipids.= They=are=key=for=repairing=the=membrane—
they=tend=to=spontaneously=rearrange=themselves=to=avoid=a=tear= by=folding=on=themselves=and=forming=a=sealed=com
partment.= The=bilayer’s=structure=accounts=for=one=of=the=essential= functions=of=the=plasma=membrane:=it=is=imperme
able=to=most=water-
soluble=molecules=(molecules=that=dissolve=in=water)= because=they=are=insoluble=to=the=oily=core=region.
Downloaded=by=Benjamin=Luca=()
, lOMoARcPSD| 51648332
Proteins:=perform=most=of=the=plasma=membrane’s=specific=tasks.= A=protein=is=made=from=a=chain=of=amino=acids=k
nown== as=polypeptides.= There=are=20=types=of=amino=acids=in=proteins,=and=each=type=of=protein=has=a=unique=seque
nce=of=amino= acids.=Proteins=go=through=translation=and=use=Posttranslation=Modifications=(PTMs)=to=diversify=protei
ns=generated.=PTMs
alter=activities=and=functions=of=proteins=which=make=them=essential=in=understanding=disease.=Proteins=are=major=work
horses= of=the=cell.= Proteins=facilitate=transport=across=membranes=by=serving=as=receptors,=enzymes,=or=transporters.==P
roteins=act=as
(1) recognition=and=binding=units=(receptors)=for=substances=moving=in=and=out=of=the=cell;=(2)=pores=or=transport=chan
nels=for= various=electrically=charged=particles=called=ions=or=electrolytes=and=specific=carriers=for=amino=acids=and=mo
nosaccharides;
(3)=specific=enzymes=that=drive=active=pumps=that=promote=concentration=of=certain=ions;=(4)=cell=surface=markers,=s
uch=as= glycoproteins=that=identify=a=cell=to=its=neighbor;=(5)=cell=adhesion=molecules.
Proteases=are=enzymes=that=cause=the=breakdown=of=proteins=and=can=be=tethered=to=cell=membranes.==Proteases=are=inv
olved=in= the=physiologic=regulation=of=essential=processes=by=participating=in=the=proteolytic=cascade.
Carbohydrates=(oligosaccharides)=contained=within=the=plasma=membrane=are=generally=bound=to=membrane=protein
s= (glycoproteins)=and=lipids=(glycolipids).
Know==the Intercellular=recognition,
=4=phrases =of=the =which
=cell=is =required=for=tissue=formation,=is=an=i
=cycle
mportant= function=of=membrane=oligosaccharides. (p.=95=eBook=key=search=term:=“cell=cycle”)
Membrane=proteins=span=bilayer=and=mediate=functions=such The=as=transport
=cell=cycle==isof=molecules
=an and=ATP==of
=ordered==sequence synthesis.
=events=that=occur=
in=a= cell=in=preparation=for=cell=division.=The=four=phases=
of=the=cell= cycle=are:
INTERPHASE:=cell=grows=and=makes=a=copy=of=its=DNA
1. the=G1=phase=(G===gap,=1st= gap=phase):=the=cell=gro
ws= physically=larger,=copies=organelles,=and=makes=t
he= molecular=building=blocks=it=will=need=in=later=(t
he=start= of=DNA=synthesis)
2. the=S=phase=(S===synthesis):=the=cell=synthesizes=a
= complete=copy=of=the=DNA=in=its=nucleus;=it=also
= duplicates=microtubule-
organizing=structure=called=the= centrosome=(help=se
parate=DNA=during=M=phase)
3. the=G2=phase=(2nd= gap=phase):=the=cell=grows=m
ore,= makes=proteins/RNA=and=organelles,=and=b
egins=to= reorganize=its=contents=in=preparation=f
or=mitosis;= prepares=to=divide
**G2=phase=ends=when=mitosis=begins**
MITOTIC=PHASE:=the=cell=separates=its=DNA=into=two=
sets= and=divides=its=cytoplasm,=forming=two=new=cells
4. the=M=phase=(M===mitosis):=the=cell=divides=its=co
pied= DNA=and=cytoplasm=to=make=two=new=cells=
via=two= distinct=division-
related=processes=mitosis=and= cytokinesis
The=stages=G1,=S,=and=G2=make=up=interphase.=inter=means
= between,=reflecting=that=interphase=takes=place=between
=one= mitotic=(M)=phase=and=the=next.
What=allows=potassium=to=diffuse=in=and=out=of=cells?
(pp.=136=eBook=8th=ed,=eBook=key=search=term:=“best=known=pump”)
The=sodium=(Na+)–potassium=(K+)=pump=(or=sodium-potassium-dependent=ATPase=pump,=or=sodium-
potassium=antiport=system)= continuously=regulates=the=cell's=volume=by=controlling=leaks=through=pores=or=protein=channels,=as=
well=as=maintains=the=ionic= concentration=gradient=necessary=for=cellular=excitation=and=membrane=conductivity.=This=pump=syst
em=moves=Na+=out=of=the=cell=and= K+=into=the=cell=using=energy=directly=from=ATP=via=a=transporter=protein=called=adenosine
=triphosphatase=(ATPase).=The=resting= plasma=membrane=is=more=permeable=to=K+=than=to=Na+,=K+=can=diffuse=easily=from=it
s=area=of=higher=concentration=in=the=ICF=to=its= area=of=lower=concentration=in=the=ECF.
For=every=ATP=molecule=hydrolyzed,=three=Na+=move=out=of=and=two=K+=move=into=cell.
Downloaded=by=Benjamin=Luca=()
U Study Guide U
5 5
This Study Guide contains:
= = =
4 ✓ NU=545=EXAM=1,=2=&=3=Study=Guide
✓ verified=questions=and=Answers=with=Reference=pg.
4
✓ key=concepts
5 ✓ advanced=clinical=reasoning.
✓ Designed=to=help=nursing=students=master=course=outcomes 5
✓ prepare=for=midterm=or=final=exams=with=confidence.
E E
, lOMoARcPSD| 51648332
Study=Guide=Unit=1
THE=CELL,=GENES=and=GENE-EVIRONMENT=INTERACTION,=and=MECHANISMS=of=SELF-DEFENSE
Section=1:=SPECIAL=NOTES=AND=TIPS=ABOUT=THE=STUDY=GUIDE
The=page=numbers=listed=are=for=the=eBook=textbook,=and=the=key=search=terms=can=be=used=with=the="find"=function.=If=you=s
ee=the= abbreviation,="fig,"=that=means=there=is=a=figure=associated=with=that=page=number.=If=you=see=the=abbreviation,="tab,"=t
hat=means=there= is=a=table=associated=with=that=page=number.=If=you=see=the=abbreviation,=“img,”=that=means=there=is=a=picture
=or=image=associated=with= that=page=number.
Some=abbreviations=to=know:
H+ + Hydrogen=ions
Na Sodium
Cl- Chloride
H2O2 Hydrogen=peroxide
H2O Water
O2 Oxygen
K+ Potassium
Ca2+ Calcium
Fe2+ Iron
Zn+ Zinc
HCO3- Bicarbonate
H2CO3 Carbonic=acid
HPO42- Hydrogen=phosphate
Mg2+ Magnesium
NaCl Sodium=chloride
NaHCO3 Sodium=bicarbonate
Do=not=mix=up=INTRA=with=INTER.=Intracellular=means=within=the=cell,=whereas=intercellular=means=between=cells.
Do=not=mix=up=ADSORB=and=ABSORB.=Adsorb=means=the=adhesion=of=atoms,=ions,=or=molecules=from=a=gas,=liquid,=or=d
issolved= solid=to=a=surface,=whereas=absorb=means=a=fluid=is=dissolved=by=or=permeates=a=liquid=or=solid.
CHAPTER=1
What=is=metabolic=absorption?
(p.=4,=eBook=key=search=term:="all=cells=take=in")
Metabolic=absorption=–=cells=taking=in=and=using=nutrients=and=other=substances=from=their=surroundings.
For=instance,=cells=of=the=intestine=and=the=kidney=are=specialized=to=carry=out=absorption.=Cells=of=the=kidney=tubules=r
eabsorb= fluids=and=synthesize=proteins,=while=intestinal=epithelial=cells=absorb=fluid=and=synthesize=protein=enzymes.
Cells=become=specialized=through=the=process=of=differentiation,=or=maturation=to=eventually=perform=one=of=the=8=chi
ef= cellular=functions=(including=movement,=conductivity,=metabolic=absorption,=secretion,=excretion,=respiration,=reprod
uction,= and=communication).
During=cell=injury,=what=is=released=that=is=capable=of=cellular=autodigestion?
(p.=17,=&=64-fig.,=eBook=key=search=term:="lysosomes=(lyso")
Lysosomes=are=saclike=structures=that=originate=from=the=Golgi=complex,=and=contain=more=than=40=digestive=enzymes=
=== called=hydrolases.=They=function=as=the=intracellular=digestive=system=and=are=capable=of=digesting=most=cellular=co
nstituents
completely=to=their=basic=components=(break=down=proteins,=lipids,=nucleic=acids,=and=carbohydrates=down=into=amino=acids,=fa
tty= acids,=and=sugars).=Disruption=of=the=lysosomal=membrane=by=various=treatments=or=cellular=injury=leads=to=a=release=of=th
e=lysosomal= enzymes=or=hydrolases,=causing=cellular=self-digestion=(or=autodigestion).
Lysosomal=storage=diseases:=Pompe=disease,=Tay-Sachs=disease,=and=gout.
Lysosomes=are=crucial=for=normal=digestion=of=cellular=nutrients,=intercellular=debris,=and=potentially=harmful=extrace
llular= substances=that=must=be=removed=from=the=body.
As=cells=complete=their=life=span=and=die,=lysosomes=digest=the=resultant=cellular=debris=in=a=process=called=autodigestion.
Downloaded=by=Benjamin=Luca=()
, lOMoARcPSD| 51648332
In=living=cells,=cellular=debris=is=encapsulated=within=a=vesicle=that=reacts=with=a=lysosome=to=complete=its=degradation=in=a
=process= called=autophagy,=which=promotes=homeostasis=through=continuous=biosynthesis=and=cell=turnover.
Where=is=the=genetic=info=contained=in=the=cell?
(p.=7=eBook;=Search=term="two=plia The=nucleus=contains=the=nucleolus,=a=small=dense=structure=composed=largely
ble= membranes=comprise") =of= RNA,=most=of=the=cellular=DNA,=and=the=DNA-
binding=proteins=(the=histones)=that= regulate=its=activity.
The=primary=functions=of=the=nucleus=are=cell=division=and=control=of=ge
NUCLEUS netic= information,=as=well=as=the=replication=and=repair=of=DNA=and=the
(located=in=the=center=of=the=cell) = transcription=of=the=information=stored=in=DNA.
Remember:=prokaryotes'=nuclear=material=is=not=encased=within=a=nuc
PRIMARY=FUNCTION=of=NUCLEUS== lear= membrane=and=they=do=not=contain=histones.
Cell=division=and=control=of=genet Histones=bind=to=DNA=to=fold=into=chromosomes,=which=is=essential=for
ic= information =cell= division=of=eukaryotes.
Other=functions:=replication=and=repair=o
f= DNA;=transcription=of=information=store
d=in= DNA
Cell=membranes=contain=which=major=chemical=components?
(p.=29-40=eBook,=8th=ed,=eBook=key=search=term:="membrane=composition")
Cell=membranes=are=composed=of=a=lipid=bilayer,=where=lipids=and=proteins=are=not=uniformly=distributed=but=can=separate=into=
discrete= units=called=microdomains.=Different=cell=membranes=may=have=different=ratios=of=lipids=to=proteins;=for=instance,=intrac
ellular= membranes=may=have=a=higher=percentage=of=proteins=than=do=plasma=membranes.=Lipids=and=proteins=act=as=the=“mole
cular=glue”=for= the=structural=integrity=of=the=membrane.
Lipid=molecules=are=said=to=be=polar=or=amphipathic,=which=means=part=hydrophobic=(uncharged=or="water=hating"
=are= protected=from=water)=and=part=hydrophilic=(charged=or="water=loving"=and=submerged=in=water).=These=two=i
ncompatible= solubilities=organize=into=the=lipid=bilayer.
The=lipid=bilayer=serves=as=a=barrier=to=the=diffusion=of=water=and=hydrophilic=substances,=while=allowing=lipid-
soluble= molecules,=such=as=oxygen=(O2)=and=carbon=dioxide=(CO2)=to=diffuse=through=readily.= The=most=abundant=li
pids=are= phospholipids.= They=are=key=for=repairing=the=membrane—
they=tend=to=spontaneously=rearrange=themselves=to=avoid=a=tear= by=folding=on=themselves=and=forming=a=sealed=com
partment.= The=bilayer’s=structure=accounts=for=one=of=the=essential= functions=of=the=plasma=membrane:=it=is=imperme
able=to=most=water-
soluble=molecules=(molecules=that=dissolve=in=water)= because=they=are=insoluble=to=the=oily=core=region.
Downloaded=by=Benjamin=Luca=()
, lOMoARcPSD| 51648332
Proteins:=perform=most=of=the=plasma=membrane’s=specific=tasks.= A=protein=is=made=from=a=chain=of=amino=acids=k
nown== as=polypeptides.= There=are=20=types=of=amino=acids=in=proteins,=and=each=type=of=protein=has=a=unique=seque
nce=of=amino= acids.=Proteins=go=through=translation=and=use=Posttranslation=Modifications=(PTMs)=to=diversify=protei
ns=generated.=PTMs
alter=activities=and=functions=of=proteins=which=make=them=essential=in=understanding=disease.=Proteins=are=major=work
horses= of=the=cell.= Proteins=facilitate=transport=across=membranes=by=serving=as=receptors,=enzymes,=or=transporters.==P
roteins=act=as
(1) recognition=and=binding=units=(receptors)=for=substances=moving=in=and=out=of=the=cell;=(2)=pores=or=transport=chan
nels=for= various=electrically=charged=particles=called=ions=or=electrolytes=and=specific=carriers=for=amino=acids=and=mo
nosaccharides;
(3)=specific=enzymes=that=drive=active=pumps=that=promote=concentration=of=certain=ions;=(4)=cell=surface=markers,=s
uch=as= glycoproteins=that=identify=a=cell=to=its=neighbor;=(5)=cell=adhesion=molecules.
Proteases=are=enzymes=that=cause=the=breakdown=of=proteins=and=can=be=tethered=to=cell=membranes.==Proteases=are=inv
olved=in= the=physiologic=regulation=of=essential=processes=by=participating=in=the=proteolytic=cascade.
Carbohydrates=(oligosaccharides)=contained=within=the=plasma=membrane=are=generally=bound=to=membrane=protein
s= (glycoproteins)=and=lipids=(glycolipids).
Know==the Intercellular=recognition,
=4=phrases =of=the =which
=cell=is =required=for=tissue=formation,=is=an=i
=cycle
mportant= function=of=membrane=oligosaccharides. (p.=95=eBook=key=search=term:=“cell=cycle”)
Membrane=proteins=span=bilayer=and=mediate=functions=such The=as=transport
=cell=cycle==isof=molecules
=an and=ATP==of
=ordered==sequence synthesis.
=events=that=occur=
in=a= cell=in=preparation=for=cell=division.=The=four=phases=
of=the=cell= cycle=are:
INTERPHASE:=cell=grows=and=makes=a=copy=of=its=DNA
1. the=G1=phase=(G===gap,=1st= gap=phase):=the=cell=gro
ws= physically=larger,=copies=organelles,=and=makes=t
he= molecular=building=blocks=it=will=need=in=later=(t
he=start= of=DNA=synthesis)
2. the=S=phase=(S===synthesis):=the=cell=synthesizes=a
= complete=copy=of=the=DNA=in=its=nucleus;=it=also
= duplicates=microtubule-
organizing=structure=called=the= centrosome=(help=se
parate=DNA=during=M=phase)
3. the=G2=phase=(2nd= gap=phase):=the=cell=grows=m
ore,= makes=proteins/RNA=and=organelles,=and=b
egins=to= reorganize=its=contents=in=preparation=f
or=mitosis;= prepares=to=divide
**G2=phase=ends=when=mitosis=begins**
MITOTIC=PHASE:=the=cell=separates=its=DNA=into=two=
sets= and=divides=its=cytoplasm,=forming=two=new=cells
4. the=M=phase=(M===mitosis):=the=cell=divides=its=co
pied= DNA=and=cytoplasm=to=make=two=new=cells=
via=two= distinct=division-
related=processes=mitosis=and= cytokinesis
The=stages=G1,=S,=and=G2=make=up=interphase.=inter=means
= between,=reflecting=that=interphase=takes=place=between
=one= mitotic=(M)=phase=and=the=next.
What=allows=potassium=to=diffuse=in=and=out=of=cells?
(pp.=136=eBook=8th=ed,=eBook=key=search=term:=“best=known=pump”)
The=sodium=(Na+)–potassium=(K+)=pump=(or=sodium-potassium-dependent=ATPase=pump,=or=sodium-
potassium=antiport=system)= continuously=regulates=the=cell's=volume=by=controlling=leaks=through=pores=or=protein=channels,=as=
well=as=maintains=the=ionic= concentration=gradient=necessary=for=cellular=excitation=and=membrane=conductivity.=This=pump=syst
em=moves=Na+=out=of=the=cell=and= K+=into=the=cell=using=energy=directly=from=ATP=via=a=transporter=protein=called=adenosine
=triphosphatase=(ATPase).=The=resting= plasma=membrane=is=more=permeable=to=K+=than=to=Na+,=K+=can=diffuse=easily=from=it
s=area=of=higher=concentration=in=the=ICF=to=its= area=of=lower=concentration=in=the=ECF.
For=every=ATP=molecule=hydrolyzed,=three=Na+=move=out=of=and=two=K+=move=into=cell.
Downloaded=by=Benjamin=Luca=()
