Euripides - Bacchae
(c. 480–406)
Euripides seems to have been more popular after his death than during his lifetime (he won
just five victories, one of which was after his death, when Bacchae was produced).
Eighteen of his plays have survived (he is sometimes credited with a nineteenth), although he
is said to have written ninety-two in all.
• In Frogs, Aristophanes presents him as an unconventional playwright who liked to
shock his audiences, and it is true that Euripides enjoyed innovating with myths and
characters (for example, the previous versions of the Medea myth probably did not
end with Medea killing her children). However, being allowed to present a play at the
Dionysia was a mark of esteem, and since Euripides was regularly selected for this, we
should not overstate the degree to which he was radical or unpopular.
• An accident of history means that far more of Euripides’ plays survive than those of
Aeschylus and Sophocles. For the other two playwrights, we have only a sample of
plays selected by ancient scholars for their excellence, whereas for Euripides as well as
ten plays selected by scholars we have a further nine which survived by chance. This
means that in the case of Euripides we have access to a group of plays selected
randomly, and this gives us an insight into how diverse tragedy was. Several of these
non-select plays are ‘escape tragedies’: plays with upbeat endings that focus on
romance, mistaken identity and reunions.
• Euripides’ Iphigenia Among the Taurians, Ion and Helen are plays of this type. Others
such as Children of Heracles or Suppliant Women have a pro-Athenian stance,
describing occasions when Athens saved the day.
• Euripides’ style is distinctive in a number of ways. His plays are more self-conscious in
style. His gods appear on stage more than the other playwrights, and the characters
challenge their behaviour (as, for example, at the end of Bacchae). Similarly, we find
references to contemporary and philosophical themes.
,The role of the gods
• From a modern perspective, the most striking feature of tragic theology is the
uncaring attitude the god’s display.
• Most modern religions posit a loving deity, and the idea of vengeful or
personally-motivated gods seems shocking. Indeed, readers of tragedy since antiquity
have found the plays’ theology troubling. In Plato’s Republic, Socrates finds its
portrayal of the gods so troubling as to ban it (along with Homer and other unsuitable
types of poetry) from the ideal city (5.377d–391e). However, it is a fundamental belief
in Greek religion that the gods were as, if not more, concerned with their honour as
human beings are, and this explains their need for worship.
In tragedy, the failure of heroes to honour the gods (or a particular god) is often
responsible for their downfall.
o This is clear in Bacchae, where Dionysus announces at the start of the play that he will
punish Thebes for refusing to worship him. Pentheus is warned repeatedly about the
dangers of dishonouring a god, for example by Tiresias near the start of the play (321;
256–7). He adds to his folly as he refuses to acknowledge Dionysus’ divinity and attempts
to humiliate him (493–518; 404–33). This disregard for divine power could not be
tolerated, and a Greek audience would not expect Dionysus to be merciful when treated
with contempt.
Garvie: “the most striking paradox (of the play) is that the god who throughout the play
promises joy will at the end produce only suffering and horror.”
o in Bacchae all the women of Thebes are driven mad by Dionysus because his mother’s
sisters denied that she was impregnated by Zeus. Cadmus suffers greatly as a result of his
grandson’s actions, although he has never rejected Dionysus. At the end of the play, when
Cadmus suggests that Dionysus’ punishment was excessive, the god replies ‘yes, for I am a
god, and I was insulted by you’ (1347; 1171). In other words, just as the gods’ power
surpasses that of human beings, so does their anger, and they will punish transgressions
against them with disproportionate violence. Scholars have long debated whether plays
such as Bacchae represent a criticism of traditional views of the gods, and to what extent
we should see tragedy as upholding or as questioning this form of theology.
, Scholars such as Easterling, Cartledge, Henrich, Goldhill and Higgins argue that
drama was employed as a means of worship.
1. Easterling: “The ecstatic possession of maenads if often used as a metaphor for the
violent actions and experiences of tragic characters and choruses, even in plays with
plots in which Dionysus plays no direct part”.
2. Cartledge: “The city Dionysia in Spring honoured Dionysus Eleutherae, a village on the
border between Attica and Boeotia”.
3. Henrich: “Choral dancing in ancient Greek culture always constitutes a form of ritual
performance”.
4. Goldhill: “Dionysus’ role as a god of subversion was essential to Tragedy”.
5. Higgins: “To attend the theatre was a religious duty”
Scholars such as Taplin, Easterling and Herington argue that it was not.
1. Taplin: “There is nothing intrinsically Dionysiac about Greek Tragedy”.
2. Easterling: “The plays composed for competition…always took their subjects from a
wider range of myths than just stories about Dionysus”.
3. Herington: “Even Aeschylus, who was evidently more interested than any other
known dramatist in plots directly relating to Dionysus, devoted only about one-tenth
of his output to such stories.
Since Aristophanes’ portrayal in Frogs, Euripides has often been described as a writer who
undermined traditional belief in the gods. Many scholars have accepted this depiction, and
have read Euripides’ plays as espousing unorthodox or even atheistic ideas. However, others
have argued against this. In exploring these ideas, Euripides is drawing on debates among
Athenian intellectuals about religion. The group of thinkers who espoused these views are
often known as the sophists.
, Fate and free will
In Bacchae, we see how Pentheus seals his fate by ignoring the warnings he is given.
He ignores several warnings given from a range of characters
1. e.g. Tiresias and Cadmus’ warning at the start of the play
2. the “stranger”’s advice at several points
3. the messenger’s warning “So, master, whoever this divinity may be, receive him in
this land. His powers are manifold.” (795-796)
Prophecy and prophets
Oedipus and Pentheus accuse Tiresias of making money out of prophesying a certain way:
Pentheus claims that Tiresias will make money from the new cult (Bacchae 257; 207–8),
while Oedipus believes that he has been bribed by Creon (380–9; 432–42).
The kings may be wrong, but their fears reflect anxiety about religious authorities abusing their
power.
Equally, the conflict with Tiresias reflects a clash between political and religious forms of
authority, and Oedipus and Pentheus overstep the mark by insulting a prophet.
Roisman: “Amid the havoc Pentheus is facing in the city, an incitement to revelry from an
esteemed seer might be devastating”.
Religious rituals and acts
Greek religion focused on action rather than belief.
The gods, it was believed, cared that humans paid them proper honour rather than that they
were fervent believers. For this reason, it is significant that Pentheus does not just fail to
acknowledge Dionysus’ divinity, but seeks to prevent his worship.
What was involved in worshipping Dionysus is one of the central questions of Bacchae.
The chorus describe Dionysiac ritual in their odes, and they emphasise the joyful nature of
their worship, and the importance of dance, music, and wine. We are also told of the activities
of the Theban bacchants on the mountainside, whose wild practices lead to Pentheus’ death.
• The worship of Dionysus by maenads was practised in real-life in ancient Greece, but we
know little about what was involved and it is unlikely that it was as ‘extreme’ as the
maenadic rituals described in Bacchae (for example, perhaps real maenads simply
(c. 480–406)
Euripides seems to have been more popular after his death than during his lifetime (he won
just five victories, one of which was after his death, when Bacchae was produced).
Eighteen of his plays have survived (he is sometimes credited with a nineteenth), although he
is said to have written ninety-two in all.
• In Frogs, Aristophanes presents him as an unconventional playwright who liked to
shock his audiences, and it is true that Euripides enjoyed innovating with myths and
characters (for example, the previous versions of the Medea myth probably did not
end with Medea killing her children). However, being allowed to present a play at the
Dionysia was a mark of esteem, and since Euripides was regularly selected for this, we
should not overstate the degree to which he was radical or unpopular.
• An accident of history means that far more of Euripides’ plays survive than those of
Aeschylus and Sophocles. For the other two playwrights, we have only a sample of
plays selected by ancient scholars for their excellence, whereas for Euripides as well as
ten plays selected by scholars we have a further nine which survived by chance. This
means that in the case of Euripides we have access to a group of plays selected
randomly, and this gives us an insight into how diverse tragedy was. Several of these
non-select plays are ‘escape tragedies’: plays with upbeat endings that focus on
romance, mistaken identity and reunions.
• Euripides’ Iphigenia Among the Taurians, Ion and Helen are plays of this type. Others
such as Children of Heracles or Suppliant Women have a pro-Athenian stance,
describing occasions when Athens saved the day.
• Euripides’ style is distinctive in a number of ways. His plays are more self-conscious in
style. His gods appear on stage more than the other playwrights, and the characters
challenge their behaviour (as, for example, at the end of Bacchae). Similarly, we find
references to contemporary and philosophical themes.
,The role of the gods
• From a modern perspective, the most striking feature of tragic theology is the
uncaring attitude the god’s display.
• Most modern religions posit a loving deity, and the idea of vengeful or
personally-motivated gods seems shocking. Indeed, readers of tragedy since antiquity
have found the plays’ theology troubling. In Plato’s Republic, Socrates finds its
portrayal of the gods so troubling as to ban it (along with Homer and other unsuitable
types of poetry) from the ideal city (5.377d–391e). However, it is a fundamental belief
in Greek religion that the gods were as, if not more, concerned with their honour as
human beings are, and this explains their need for worship.
In tragedy, the failure of heroes to honour the gods (or a particular god) is often
responsible for their downfall.
o This is clear in Bacchae, where Dionysus announces at the start of the play that he will
punish Thebes for refusing to worship him. Pentheus is warned repeatedly about the
dangers of dishonouring a god, for example by Tiresias near the start of the play (321;
256–7). He adds to his folly as he refuses to acknowledge Dionysus’ divinity and attempts
to humiliate him (493–518; 404–33). This disregard for divine power could not be
tolerated, and a Greek audience would not expect Dionysus to be merciful when treated
with contempt.
Garvie: “the most striking paradox (of the play) is that the god who throughout the play
promises joy will at the end produce only suffering and horror.”
o in Bacchae all the women of Thebes are driven mad by Dionysus because his mother’s
sisters denied that she was impregnated by Zeus. Cadmus suffers greatly as a result of his
grandson’s actions, although he has never rejected Dionysus. At the end of the play, when
Cadmus suggests that Dionysus’ punishment was excessive, the god replies ‘yes, for I am a
god, and I was insulted by you’ (1347; 1171). In other words, just as the gods’ power
surpasses that of human beings, so does their anger, and they will punish transgressions
against them with disproportionate violence. Scholars have long debated whether plays
such as Bacchae represent a criticism of traditional views of the gods, and to what extent
we should see tragedy as upholding or as questioning this form of theology.
, Scholars such as Easterling, Cartledge, Henrich, Goldhill and Higgins argue that
drama was employed as a means of worship.
1. Easterling: “The ecstatic possession of maenads if often used as a metaphor for the
violent actions and experiences of tragic characters and choruses, even in plays with
plots in which Dionysus plays no direct part”.
2. Cartledge: “The city Dionysia in Spring honoured Dionysus Eleutherae, a village on the
border between Attica and Boeotia”.
3. Henrich: “Choral dancing in ancient Greek culture always constitutes a form of ritual
performance”.
4. Goldhill: “Dionysus’ role as a god of subversion was essential to Tragedy”.
5. Higgins: “To attend the theatre was a religious duty”
Scholars such as Taplin, Easterling and Herington argue that it was not.
1. Taplin: “There is nothing intrinsically Dionysiac about Greek Tragedy”.
2. Easterling: “The plays composed for competition…always took their subjects from a
wider range of myths than just stories about Dionysus”.
3. Herington: “Even Aeschylus, who was evidently more interested than any other
known dramatist in plots directly relating to Dionysus, devoted only about one-tenth
of his output to such stories.
Since Aristophanes’ portrayal in Frogs, Euripides has often been described as a writer who
undermined traditional belief in the gods. Many scholars have accepted this depiction, and
have read Euripides’ plays as espousing unorthodox or even atheistic ideas. However, others
have argued against this. In exploring these ideas, Euripides is drawing on debates among
Athenian intellectuals about religion. The group of thinkers who espoused these views are
often known as the sophists.
, Fate and free will
In Bacchae, we see how Pentheus seals his fate by ignoring the warnings he is given.
He ignores several warnings given from a range of characters
1. e.g. Tiresias and Cadmus’ warning at the start of the play
2. the “stranger”’s advice at several points
3. the messenger’s warning “So, master, whoever this divinity may be, receive him in
this land. His powers are manifold.” (795-796)
Prophecy and prophets
Oedipus and Pentheus accuse Tiresias of making money out of prophesying a certain way:
Pentheus claims that Tiresias will make money from the new cult (Bacchae 257; 207–8),
while Oedipus believes that he has been bribed by Creon (380–9; 432–42).
The kings may be wrong, but their fears reflect anxiety about religious authorities abusing their
power.
Equally, the conflict with Tiresias reflects a clash between political and religious forms of
authority, and Oedipus and Pentheus overstep the mark by insulting a prophet.
Roisman: “Amid the havoc Pentheus is facing in the city, an incitement to revelry from an
esteemed seer might be devastating”.
Religious rituals and acts
Greek religion focused on action rather than belief.
The gods, it was believed, cared that humans paid them proper honour rather than that they
were fervent believers. For this reason, it is significant that Pentheus does not just fail to
acknowledge Dionysus’ divinity, but seeks to prevent his worship.
What was involved in worshipping Dionysus is one of the central questions of Bacchae.
The chorus describe Dionysiac ritual in their odes, and they emphasise the joyful nature of
their worship, and the importance of dance, music, and wine. We are also told of the activities
of the Theban bacchants on the mountainside, whose wild practices lead to Pentheus’ death.
• The worship of Dionysus by maenads was practised in real-life in ancient Greece, but we
know little about what was involved and it is unlikely that it was as ‘extreme’ as the
maenadic rituals described in Bacchae (for example, perhaps real maenads simply
