Soci 121 Final Terms Questions and Verified
Answers
Fertility Correct Answer: The number of children that are actually born to women
Fecundity Correct Answer: The physiological capacity to conceive/carry a child to term.
Fecundability Correct Answer: The probability of conception for a woman (usually determined monthly,
average of 0.2, or one pregnancy every five months)
Female reproductive period Correct Answer: The female reproductive period is usually considered to
extend from age 15 through age 45 or 50. Females are able to become pregnant after they reach
menarche, although there is often a period of time after menarche when the chance of conception is
relatively low. Menarche can start at age 10 or younger but more typically occurs at about 12 years. Age
at menarche has declined over time in more developed countries. It can occur as late as 18 years or older.
Females stop being able to become pregnant at menopause, although the chance of becoming pregnant
declines gradually over many years. Average age at menopause is about 50 in the MDR, and seems to
have become older over time in the
CBR Correct Answer: Crude birth rate, looks at births relative to the total population. (# births / mid-
year pop) x 1000
GFR Correct Answer: general fertility rate, A measure of fertility which focuses more on women in the
childbearing ages is the general fertility rate, which is the number of births per thousand women in the
childbearing ages. The childbearing ages are usually considered 15-49. (# births / mid- year pop 15-49) x
1000
ASFR Correct Answer: Age-specific fertility rates, It is useful and important to look at fertility rates by
age of woman. The age-specific fertility rates are the number of children born on average per year per
woman in a given age range. Usually this is calculated for five-year age groups, 15-19 . . . 45-49.
(nBx/nWx) * 1,000
TFR Correct Answer: total fertility rate, The total number of children that a woman can expect to bare if
she survives to the end of childbearing age and is exposed to the age specific fertility rates of a given
period. TFR is equal to the sum of the ASFRs (dividing by 1000). If ASFRs are given for anything other
than single years, the sum of the ASFRs must be multiplied by that interval. ∑ASFR * n / 1000
GRR Correct Answer: gross reproduction rate GRR is number of female children a woman can expect to
have. General estimate is to multiply TFR by the proportion of births in a society that are female. The
biological proportion of births that are female is about .49. GRR = TFR .49. GRR = ΣASFRf n/ 1000
,NRR Correct Answer: net reproduction rate. NRR measures number female children a women can expect
given she survives to have children. NRR is a good measure because it comments on how well a society is
replacing themselves. It accounts for not only fertility but also mortality. NRR of 1.0 is exactly
replacement level. It means that each woman is living long enough, and the fertility is at the level, that
they will have one female child replacing her. If mortality is low, as in MDCs today, a TFR of about 2.1
gives an NRR of 1.0.If mortality is high, it may take a TFR of 2.5 or higher to get an NRR of 1.0, like in
some less developed countries. If mortality is very high, it may take a TFR of 5 or 6 to get an NRR of 1.0,
like in pre-demographic transition era.
Replacement fertility Correct Answer: The level of fertility necessary to for a population to replace
itself.~ 2.1 children/woman, at current US mortality, and normal SRB. Below replacement fertility
Maximum level of reproduction Correct Answer: Theoretical number of children a woman could have.
Aged 15 to 49 has 420 months. Gestation is 9 months, 4 months of infecudibility, 5 months to pregnancy:
420/18 = 23
children ever born Correct Answer: lifetime child bearing
period vs. cohort fertility Correct Answer: A period measure of fertility uses current information, e.g.,
information in 2010, to project fertility experience of a "hypothetical cohort". Most of our measures are
period measures, because this type of information is easy to get. Period measure does not tell us what is
going to be the true fertility experience of a group, only a guess given the current situation.Example: an
odd year where everyone is giving birth, period measures will greatly overestimate fertility. The opposite
is true when there are a small number of births. A cohort is a group of people having similar experiences.
A birth cohort refers to a group of people born during a similar time. Cohort measures of fertility
measure the actual experience of a group of women who have gone through and completed their
childbearing.
Cohort measures of fertility Correct Answer: If we have information about fertility of women who have
already passed through childbearing years, it is possible to obtain a true cohort measure of fertility. We
can determine cohort fertility rate by averaging Children Ever Born (CEB) to a cohort of women. Certain
historical periods have been shown to create variations in cohort fertility. The depression reduced births
during that period, while the war increased it after it ended. If these periods had an effect on childbirth,
without altering the total number of children born to women, it is said to have a period effect. Cohort
fertility tends to be more stable than period fertility over time. The reason is that fertility patterns don't
change as quickly as period rates would display. We have to wait until a group has completed fertility to
get Cohort measures of fertility.
Proximate determinants of fertility Correct Answer: Proximate determinants is a term used to describe
the factors that have direct influences on fertility rates within a society. Example- Fertility is often
thought of as a function of social factors, for instance: High Education → Low fertility. Although this is
true, proximate determinants refer to those intermediate factors or variables that influence fertility
directly- High Education → Greater use of contraception → Low fertility. To change fertility levels,
there must be changes in the proximate determinants
, Intercourse Variables Correct Answer: Factors that influence the duration or exposure to reproduction
Conception Variables Correct Answer: Factors that influence the chances that an leads to a conception
Gestation Variables Correct Answer: Factors that influence a conception leading to a successful birth
Factors influencing exposure Correct Answer: Factors influencing the amount of time women spend in
sexual unions. Women's age of marriage or age of entry into a sexual union. Proportion of women never
marrying or remaining celibate. Amount of time women spend between sexual unions
Exposure to sexual intercourse Correct Answer: Proximate determinants of fertility, Exposure to sexual
intercourse (Intercourse variables) Formation and duration of sexual unions. Whether a woman marries
and age at marriage —whether a woman cohabits and age at cohabitation. Marital dissolution (divorce
and widowhood)—cohabitation dissolution. Exposure to sexual intercourse in unions. Voluntary
abstinence. Involuntary abstinence (impotence, illness, temporary separation, such as for work). Coital
frequency
exposure to conception Correct Answer: proximate determinants of fertility. Exposure to conception
(Conception variables). Periods of fecundity or infecundity, such as affected by breastfeeding or as
affected by sterilization or medical treatment. Use or nonuse of contraception. Gestation and carrying
the pregnancy to birth (Gestation variables). Miscarriage (also called spontaneous abortion). Induced
abortion
Factors influencing conception Correct Answer: Factors influencing exposure within a sexual union.
Average coital frequency. Proportion voluntarily abstinent within the union. Proportion involuntarily
abstinent. Probability and type of contraception used Infecundity by involuntary causes, mostly length
of breast feeding.Infecundity by voluntary causes, mostly sterilization.
Factors Influencing gestation Correct Answer: Involuntary abortions or miscarriages. Voluntary
abortions. Single most widely used form of birth control in the world. In 1995 there were 46 millions
abortions worldwide. 1 in 4 pregnancies in the world / U.S ends in abortion. Abortion is popular both
where it is legal and illegal. 44% of abortions worldwide are not legal. Abortion is used more often
when. other methods of contraception are unavailable. abstinence is a politically favored method of birth
control. there are weak structures in place promoting other methods. Social acceptance of abortion does
not necessarily reduce abortion prevalence.
Four Most Important Proximate Determinants Correct Answer: Age at marriage (influencing duration of
exposure to sexual union). Breast feeding (influencing involuntary infecundity). Prevalence of
contraception use. Prevalence of abortion
Reproductive age Correct Answer: menarche 12, menopause 50. Able to become pregnant after reaching
menarche; stop after menopause
Answers
Fertility Correct Answer: The number of children that are actually born to women
Fecundity Correct Answer: The physiological capacity to conceive/carry a child to term.
Fecundability Correct Answer: The probability of conception for a woman (usually determined monthly,
average of 0.2, or one pregnancy every five months)
Female reproductive period Correct Answer: The female reproductive period is usually considered to
extend from age 15 through age 45 or 50. Females are able to become pregnant after they reach
menarche, although there is often a period of time after menarche when the chance of conception is
relatively low. Menarche can start at age 10 or younger but more typically occurs at about 12 years. Age
at menarche has declined over time in more developed countries. It can occur as late as 18 years or older.
Females stop being able to become pregnant at menopause, although the chance of becoming pregnant
declines gradually over many years. Average age at menopause is about 50 in the MDR, and seems to
have become older over time in the
CBR Correct Answer: Crude birth rate, looks at births relative to the total population. (# births / mid-
year pop) x 1000
GFR Correct Answer: general fertility rate, A measure of fertility which focuses more on women in the
childbearing ages is the general fertility rate, which is the number of births per thousand women in the
childbearing ages. The childbearing ages are usually considered 15-49. (# births / mid- year pop 15-49) x
1000
ASFR Correct Answer: Age-specific fertility rates, It is useful and important to look at fertility rates by
age of woman. The age-specific fertility rates are the number of children born on average per year per
woman in a given age range. Usually this is calculated for five-year age groups, 15-19 . . . 45-49.
(nBx/nWx) * 1,000
TFR Correct Answer: total fertility rate, The total number of children that a woman can expect to bare if
she survives to the end of childbearing age and is exposed to the age specific fertility rates of a given
period. TFR is equal to the sum of the ASFRs (dividing by 1000). If ASFRs are given for anything other
than single years, the sum of the ASFRs must be multiplied by that interval. ∑ASFR * n / 1000
GRR Correct Answer: gross reproduction rate GRR is number of female children a woman can expect to
have. General estimate is to multiply TFR by the proportion of births in a society that are female. The
biological proportion of births that are female is about .49. GRR = TFR .49. GRR = ΣASFRf n/ 1000
,NRR Correct Answer: net reproduction rate. NRR measures number female children a women can expect
given she survives to have children. NRR is a good measure because it comments on how well a society is
replacing themselves. It accounts for not only fertility but also mortality. NRR of 1.0 is exactly
replacement level. It means that each woman is living long enough, and the fertility is at the level, that
they will have one female child replacing her. If mortality is low, as in MDCs today, a TFR of about 2.1
gives an NRR of 1.0.If mortality is high, it may take a TFR of 2.5 or higher to get an NRR of 1.0, like in
some less developed countries. If mortality is very high, it may take a TFR of 5 or 6 to get an NRR of 1.0,
like in pre-demographic transition era.
Replacement fertility Correct Answer: The level of fertility necessary to for a population to replace
itself.~ 2.1 children/woman, at current US mortality, and normal SRB. Below replacement fertility
Maximum level of reproduction Correct Answer: Theoretical number of children a woman could have.
Aged 15 to 49 has 420 months. Gestation is 9 months, 4 months of infecudibility, 5 months to pregnancy:
420/18 = 23
children ever born Correct Answer: lifetime child bearing
period vs. cohort fertility Correct Answer: A period measure of fertility uses current information, e.g.,
information in 2010, to project fertility experience of a "hypothetical cohort". Most of our measures are
period measures, because this type of information is easy to get. Period measure does not tell us what is
going to be the true fertility experience of a group, only a guess given the current situation.Example: an
odd year where everyone is giving birth, period measures will greatly overestimate fertility. The opposite
is true when there are a small number of births. A cohort is a group of people having similar experiences.
A birth cohort refers to a group of people born during a similar time. Cohort measures of fertility
measure the actual experience of a group of women who have gone through and completed their
childbearing.
Cohort measures of fertility Correct Answer: If we have information about fertility of women who have
already passed through childbearing years, it is possible to obtain a true cohort measure of fertility. We
can determine cohort fertility rate by averaging Children Ever Born (CEB) to a cohort of women. Certain
historical periods have been shown to create variations in cohort fertility. The depression reduced births
during that period, while the war increased it after it ended. If these periods had an effect on childbirth,
without altering the total number of children born to women, it is said to have a period effect. Cohort
fertility tends to be more stable than period fertility over time. The reason is that fertility patterns don't
change as quickly as period rates would display. We have to wait until a group has completed fertility to
get Cohort measures of fertility.
Proximate determinants of fertility Correct Answer: Proximate determinants is a term used to describe
the factors that have direct influences on fertility rates within a society. Example- Fertility is often
thought of as a function of social factors, for instance: High Education → Low fertility. Although this is
true, proximate determinants refer to those intermediate factors or variables that influence fertility
directly- High Education → Greater use of contraception → Low fertility. To change fertility levels,
there must be changes in the proximate determinants
, Intercourse Variables Correct Answer: Factors that influence the duration or exposure to reproduction
Conception Variables Correct Answer: Factors that influence the chances that an leads to a conception
Gestation Variables Correct Answer: Factors that influence a conception leading to a successful birth
Factors influencing exposure Correct Answer: Factors influencing the amount of time women spend in
sexual unions. Women's age of marriage or age of entry into a sexual union. Proportion of women never
marrying or remaining celibate. Amount of time women spend between sexual unions
Exposure to sexual intercourse Correct Answer: Proximate determinants of fertility, Exposure to sexual
intercourse (Intercourse variables) Formation and duration of sexual unions. Whether a woman marries
and age at marriage —whether a woman cohabits and age at cohabitation. Marital dissolution (divorce
and widowhood)—cohabitation dissolution. Exposure to sexual intercourse in unions. Voluntary
abstinence. Involuntary abstinence (impotence, illness, temporary separation, such as for work). Coital
frequency
exposure to conception Correct Answer: proximate determinants of fertility. Exposure to conception
(Conception variables). Periods of fecundity or infecundity, such as affected by breastfeeding or as
affected by sterilization or medical treatment. Use or nonuse of contraception. Gestation and carrying
the pregnancy to birth (Gestation variables). Miscarriage (also called spontaneous abortion). Induced
abortion
Factors influencing conception Correct Answer: Factors influencing exposure within a sexual union.
Average coital frequency. Proportion voluntarily abstinent within the union. Proportion involuntarily
abstinent. Probability and type of contraception used Infecundity by involuntary causes, mostly length
of breast feeding.Infecundity by voluntary causes, mostly sterilization.
Factors Influencing gestation Correct Answer: Involuntary abortions or miscarriages. Voluntary
abortions. Single most widely used form of birth control in the world. In 1995 there were 46 millions
abortions worldwide. 1 in 4 pregnancies in the world / U.S ends in abortion. Abortion is popular both
where it is legal and illegal. 44% of abortions worldwide are not legal. Abortion is used more often
when. other methods of contraception are unavailable. abstinence is a politically favored method of birth
control. there are weak structures in place promoting other methods. Social acceptance of abortion does
not necessarily reduce abortion prevalence.
Four Most Important Proximate Determinants Correct Answer: Age at marriage (influencing duration of
exposure to sexual union). Breast feeding (influencing involuntary infecundity). Prevalence of
contraception use. Prevalence of abortion
Reproductive age Correct Answer: menarche 12, menopause 50. Able to become pregnant after reaching
menarche; stop after menopause
