Chapter 1
Psychological science relies on empirical evidence and adapts as new data develop.
Psychology values transparent, ethical, inclusive, replicable science.
Integrative themes of psychology:
- Biological (neurological aspect)
- Developmental (
- Cognitive (memory, intelligence, etc.)
- Social and personality (how we influence others and how they influence us)
- Mental and physical health (psychological disorders, factors contributing to them, and
variance in recovery rates)
Blind men grabbing an elephant (analogy)
The man grabbing the tusk might perceive it as a ferocious, war-like creature.
The one grabbing the legs might perceive it as a stump.
…etc.
The men will develop different interpretations of what an elephant is because they were focused
on specific parts of the elephant and thus applied a linear way of thinking. This analogy can be
applied to psychology.
1. Psychology explains the principles that govern behavior while recognizing individual
differences.
2. Applying psychological principles can change our lives, organizations and communities
in positive ways.
3. Psychological, biological, social and cultural factors influence our behavior.
4. Our biases filter our perception
Assumptions/biases of western psychology:
- Individuality: the idea that the individual is the unit of focus. Behavior is studied at the
individual level.
- Experiment-based empiricism: the idea that conducting true experiments (with respect to
the control variables) is the best way for psychologists to study the mind and behavior.
- Quantification: the idea that in order to understand a concept in psychology, you need to
be able to quantify (measure) it.
- Pseudo-objectivity: a false sense of objection formed by the presumption that one’s own
biases and prejudices will not influence the results of a study.
- Nomothetic approach: the idea that breaking a subject into parts will help in
understanding it.
, - Male dominance: particularly of Western male psychologists; this led to dominance of
opinions regarding what topics were worth studying and which topics were not worth
studying.
Wilhelm Wundt (1879, Leipzig, Germany) is the founding father of experimental psychology.
- His “thought meter” studied reaction time.
- Voluntarism: the idea that humans have free will and we, as individuals, exert
influence over our own choices.
Schools of thought in psychology:
https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/schools-of-psychology-structuralism-functionalism
-behaviorism-gestalt-psychology-and-psychoanalysis/242844004#4
- Structuralism (Edward Titchener): the idea that we can describe and understand
conscious experience by breaking it down into its structural components, e.g., feelings,
thoughts and sensations.
- Functionalism (William James): heavily influenced by Darwin, James took a different
perspective and sought to explain the “why’s” of human consciousness and behavior.
- Behaviorism (John Watson; B.F. Skinner): the idea that psychologists should be focused
on understanding observable things. Heavy use of animal models.
- Humanism (Carl Rogers; Abraham Maslow): the belief that humans, as individuals, are
unique beings and should be treated as such by psychologists.
,Chapter 2
- The results of any singular study can only inform us about one very specific aspect of a
broader subject.
- We’re always adapting our understanding of the world as new data develops.
- Acknowledge the idea that scientific method is circular, not linear, because the
conclusion/implications of a study typically lead to more research questions.
Role of theory
- Explanatory: a good scientific theory ties together findings and arches them into an
explanatory model.
- Predictive/Generative: theories can be used to generate hypotheses based on the theory
itself.
Scientific theories must be:
- Testable using currently available research techniques
- Falsifiable → it must be possible in principle to make an observation that would disprove
the theory, even if that observation has not been made.
- Parsimonious → preference for simplicity (fewer assumptions)
E.g.
- Intergroup contact theory
- Social comparison theory
- Social learning theory
Independent variable: a variable that is manipulated to see its impact on the dependent variable.
Dependent variable: a variable that is measured to see how it is affected by the independent
variable.
Definitions of variables
- Conceptual: the meaning of a term/its dictionary (or textbook) definition
- Operational: definitions of theoretical constructs that are stated in term of concrete,
observable procedures (that can be measured)
- Constructs: internal attributes and characteristics that cannot be directly observed but
are useful for describing and explaining behavior, e.g. prejudice, anxiety, aggression,
intelligence.
, E.g. anxiety
Operational definition:
Physiological - sweat production, heart rate, blood pressure, etc.
Behavioral - eye contact, fidgeting, twitching etc.
Self-reported measure: anxiety scale
Conceptual definition:
Descriptive method: single variable of interest
Types of observation
- Naturalistic observation: passive observation where observers do not change or alter
ongoing behavior.
- Participant observation: active observation where the observer is actively involved in the
situation, e.g. by interacting with the individuals being observed.
- Laboratory observation: systematic observations are made within a lab setting rather
than the real world.
PROS CONS
Case studies and observational research Reactivity, i.e. the Hawthorne effect;
provides important insights and stimulates individuals’ behavior changes if they know
further research to test specific hypotheses they are being observed - demand
characteristics
Surveys allow us to gather large amounts of Observer/experimenter bias: complete
information quickly and easily objectivity is unrealistic given our own
personal biases which filter our experiences
and perception of the world.
Focus groups and interviews can provide Self-report bias:
rich, detailed information that may be lacking - Social desirability bias
from a survey - The “better than average” effect
Psychological science relies on empirical evidence and adapts as new data develop.
Psychology values transparent, ethical, inclusive, replicable science.
Integrative themes of psychology:
- Biological (neurological aspect)
- Developmental (
- Cognitive (memory, intelligence, etc.)
- Social and personality (how we influence others and how they influence us)
- Mental and physical health (psychological disorders, factors contributing to them, and
variance in recovery rates)
Blind men grabbing an elephant (analogy)
The man grabbing the tusk might perceive it as a ferocious, war-like creature.
The one grabbing the legs might perceive it as a stump.
…etc.
The men will develop different interpretations of what an elephant is because they were focused
on specific parts of the elephant and thus applied a linear way of thinking. This analogy can be
applied to psychology.
1. Psychology explains the principles that govern behavior while recognizing individual
differences.
2. Applying psychological principles can change our lives, organizations and communities
in positive ways.
3. Psychological, biological, social and cultural factors influence our behavior.
4. Our biases filter our perception
Assumptions/biases of western psychology:
- Individuality: the idea that the individual is the unit of focus. Behavior is studied at the
individual level.
- Experiment-based empiricism: the idea that conducting true experiments (with respect to
the control variables) is the best way for psychologists to study the mind and behavior.
- Quantification: the idea that in order to understand a concept in psychology, you need to
be able to quantify (measure) it.
- Pseudo-objectivity: a false sense of objection formed by the presumption that one’s own
biases and prejudices will not influence the results of a study.
- Nomothetic approach: the idea that breaking a subject into parts will help in
understanding it.
, - Male dominance: particularly of Western male psychologists; this led to dominance of
opinions regarding what topics were worth studying and which topics were not worth
studying.
Wilhelm Wundt (1879, Leipzig, Germany) is the founding father of experimental psychology.
- His “thought meter” studied reaction time.
- Voluntarism: the idea that humans have free will and we, as individuals, exert
influence over our own choices.
Schools of thought in psychology:
https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/schools-of-psychology-structuralism-functionalism
-behaviorism-gestalt-psychology-and-psychoanalysis/242844004#4
- Structuralism (Edward Titchener): the idea that we can describe and understand
conscious experience by breaking it down into its structural components, e.g., feelings,
thoughts and sensations.
- Functionalism (William James): heavily influenced by Darwin, James took a different
perspective and sought to explain the “why’s” of human consciousness and behavior.
- Behaviorism (John Watson; B.F. Skinner): the idea that psychologists should be focused
on understanding observable things. Heavy use of animal models.
- Humanism (Carl Rogers; Abraham Maslow): the belief that humans, as individuals, are
unique beings and should be treated as such by psychologists.
,Chapter 2
- The results of any singular study can only inform us about one very specific aspect of a
broader subject.
- We’re always adapting our understanding of the world as new data develops.
- Acknowledge the idea that scientific method is circular, not linear, because the
conclusion/implications of a study typically lead to more research questions.
Role of theory
- Explanatory: a good scientific theory ties together findings and arches them into an
explanatory model.
- Predictive/Generative: theories can be used to generate hypotheses based on the theory
itself.
Scientific theories must be:
- Testable using currently available research techniques
- Falsifiable → it must be possible in principle to make an observation that would disprove
the theory, even if that observation has not been made.
- Parsimonious → preference for simplicity (fewer assumptions)
E.g.
- Intergroup contact theory
- Social comparison theory
- Social learning theory
Independent variable: a variable that is manipulated to see its impact on the dependent variable.
Dependent variable: a variable that is measured to see how it is affected by the independent
variable.
Definitions of variables
- Conceptual: the meaning of a term/its dictionary (or textbook) definition
- Operational: definitions of theoretical constructs that are stated in term of concrete,
observable procedures (that can be measured)
- Constructs: internal attributes and characteristics that cannot be directly observed but
are useful for describing and explaining behavior, e.g. prejudice, anxiety, aggression,
intelligence.
, E.g. anxiety
Operational definition:
Physiological - sweat production, heart rate, blood pressure, etc.
Behavioral - eye contact, fidgeting, twitching etc.
Self-reported measure: anxiety scale
Conceptual definition:
Descriptive method: single variable of interest
Types of observation
- Naturalistic observation: passive observation where observers do not change or alter
ongoing behavior.
- Participant observation: active observation where the observer is actively involved in the
situation, e.g. by interacting with the individuals being observed.
- Laboratory observation: systematic observations are made within a lab setting rather
than the real world.
PROS CONS
Case studies and observational research Reactivity, i.e. the Hawthorne effect;
provides important insights and stimulates individuals’ behavior changes if they know
further research to test specific hypotheses they are being observed - demand
characteristics
Surveys allow us to gather large amounts of Observer/experimenter bias: complete
information quickly and easily objectivity is unrealistic given our own
personal biases which filter our experiences
and perception of the world.
Focus groups and interviews can provide Self-report bias:
rich, detailed information that may be lacking - Social desirability bias
from a survey - The “better than average” effect
