TEST BANK
Introducing Psychology Fifth Edition
by Daniel Schacter, Daniel Gilbert
SC
O
R
EG
U
ID
ES
,Chapter_01_Essay
1. Describe philosophical dualism and philosophical materialism. Most modern-day psychologists embrace
materialism, but which branch of modern-day psychology explicitly uses this approach in its study of the mind?
ANSWER: The answer should provide the following information: (1) Philosophical dualism is the view that the
mind and body are fundamentally different things. (2) Philosophical materialism is the view that all
mental phenomena are reducible to physical phenomena. (3) In their work, cognitive neuroscientists
study the relationship between the brain and the mind. Because cognitive neuroscientists assume
that the brain and the mind are related, they use a materialist approach.
SC
2. Contrast the views of Locke's realism with Kant's idealism. What position do modern psychologists take on
this issue?
ANSWER: The answer should provide the following information: (1) Locke argued that perceptions of the
physical world are produced entirely by information from the sensory organs. (2) Kant argued that
perceptions of the world involve both information from the sensory organs and the brain's
interpretations of that information. (3) Modern psychologists agree that our perception of the world
is an inference of our brain's best guess at what is there.
O
3. Differentiate between a structuralist and a functionalist approach to understanding consciousness. Identify the
founders of both approaches and the earlier influences that gave rise to these schools of psychology.
ANSWER: The answer should indicate that Wilhelm Wundt began structuralism and was greatly influenced by
R
the physiological research of Helmholtz, for whom he was a research assistant. Structuralism
attempts to identify the basic elements that constitute the mind by deconstructing the conscious
experience through techniques such as introspection. William James began functionalism. He did
EG
not believe that consciousness can be broken down into basic elements; rather, he believed
consciousness was more like a flowing stream than a collection of components. Functionalism
sought to identify the adaptive significance, or functions, of consciousness, rather than
deconstructing it into elements. James was highly influenced by Darwin's theory of natural
selection.
4. Discuss Sigmund Freud's influence on the field of psychology. What are the contributions and critiques of
U
psychoanalytic theory?
ANSWER: The answer should provide the following information: (1) Though many people disagree with
Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory, he is one of the most influential psychologists ever. (2)
Freud had been educated as a physician and noticed that patients were coming into his office with
ID
problems that had no physical justification. Freud decided to talk with these patients about their
psychosomatic symptoms, which were termed hysteria in Freud's day. Over time, he developed a
therapy called psychoanalysis. (3) Freud developed a theory of how the mind works and how people
may be governed by forces of which they are unaware. This idea of an unconscious has had a
tremendous impact on psychology, literature, and art. It also formed the basis of psychoanalysis,
ES
which involves bringing unconscious motivations, desires, and thoughts into the conscious mind. (4)
One limitation of psychoanalytic theory is that it does not lend itself to testable predictions. Because
there is little empirical support for Freud's theories, his influence has diminished over the decades.
Another criticism of psychoanalytic theory is that it portrayed the human condition pessimistically,
positing that human behavior was governed by rather dark forces that were outside of our conscious
awareness.
5. Why would John Watson disagree with the definition of psychology as stated in the textbook?
ANSWER: The answer should indicate that psychology can be defined as the scientific study of behavior and
mental processes. John Watson was the founder of behaviorism. He believed that mental processes
could not be studied scientifically because they were not objectively observable. He believed that if
, psychology was to be a science, it should confine its subject matter to objectively observable
behavior. For this reason, Watson would disagree with the definition of psychology as presented in
the textbook. In fairness to Watson, however, he lived before modern brain-scanning devices
allowed psychologists to make objective observations of the neurological processes underlying
cognition.
6. Compare and contrast Freud's and Skinner's ideas about the forces that control behavior.
ANSWER: Freud believed that behavior was controlled by the unconscious, or the part of the mind that contains
information of which people are not aware. Freud thought that you needed to understand the
SC
contents of the unconscious to understand the person, so he used free association and dream analysis
to study the unconscious. Skinner believed that consequences control behavior. His principle of
reinforcement stated that any behavior that is rewarded will be repeated and any behavior that isn't
rewarded won't. Both Freud and Skinner believed that humans do not have free will over their
behavior. Both Freud's and Skinner's ideas contributed not only to the field of psychology but also
beyond psychology.
O
7. Describe Skinner's ideas about the forces that control behavior. What would contribute to your behavior
related to studying, according to Skinner?
ANSWER: Skinner believed that consequences control behavior. His principle of reinforcement stated that any
behavior that is rewarded will be repeated and any behavior that isn't rewarded won't. Therefore,
R
when students study hard, they may be rewarded with good grades and approval from teachers,
parents, and peers. These students' studying behaviors will be reinforced and are more likely to
occur in the future.
EG
8. Discuss some benefits that behaviorism brought to the field of psychology. Then discuss some problems
associated with behaviorism.
ANSWER: The answer should provide the following information: (1) Behaviorists highlighted the need for
psychologists to study phenomena that were objectively observable. This advanced the science of
psychology. (2) The research of Ivan Pavlov and John Watson demonstrated how associations
between stimuli and responses are formed. (3) Using rats, B. F. Skinner developed a methodology
U
demonstrating that the consequences of behavior determine its future occurrence. This work has
taught psychologists how people, not just rats, learn. His principle of reinforcement pervades
modern psychology. (4) By focusing their study only on observable behavior, however, behaviorists
neglected important areas of study such as perception, memory, cognitive and brain processes, and
ID
language. As a result, most psychologists ultimately shifted away from the behaviorist approach.
9. Humans have a tendency to be afraid of the dark. Provide an explanation of this phenomenon within the
framework of both behaviorism and evolutionary psychology. Are the two explanations necessarily
incompatible?
ES
ANSWER: The answer should provide the following information: (1) Humans tend not to see well at night. As
such, we are prone to accidents when navigating in the dark. In addition, we are at a disadvantage if
surrounded by large nocturnal animals that could possibly harm us. In contrast, hunkering down and
sleeping in small groups at night provides some measure of safety. (2) Behaviorists would focus on
the learning that occurs within an individual's lifetime. For example, the last time Bob went hunting
at night, he broke his ankle and almost got eaten by a lion. Hunting at night, then, has been punished
by its consequences. Conversely, seeking a safe shelter is reinforced with warmth, safety, and
companionship. As a result of these learning experiences, Bob fears the dark and would rather stay
inside. (3) Evolutionary psychologists would note that during the course of mammalian evolution,
our ancestors who ventured outside in the dark tended not to reproduce in great numbers, perhaps
because they fell off cliffs or got eaten by crocodiles. Those ancestors, who just so happened to be
, leery of the dark, lived to pass on their genes. Thus, we are left with the genes of those who did not
particularly enjoy nightly jaunts through the forest. (4) On the surface, the two explanations are very
different. While behaviorists do not deny the role of genetics, they point to the environment as the
major determinant of behavior. As such, a behaviorist would first seek to understand the learning
experiences that shaped an individual's fear of the dark. On the other hand, an evolutionary
psychologist will focus on differential reproductive success as a result of the behavior of our
ancestors. We are left with their genes, and thus, their behavior patterns. (5) The two explanations
are not incompatible, but rather represent different levels of analysis. For example, early mammals
might learn to avoid the dark through natural consequences within their lifetime. Principles of
SC
reinforcement and punishment from a behavioral account would explain this behavior. These are the
mammals that live to reproduce and pass on their genes. To the extent that susceptibility to
reinforcement is, in part, genetically based, we are genetically predisposed to fear the dark due to the
learning experiences of our remote ancestors.
10. Discuss how technological advancements, along with work in the field of linguistics, advanced cognitive
psychology and ultimately led to the downfall of behaviorism as the dominant field within psychology.
O
ANSWER: The answer should indicate that the advent of the computer gave psychologists a useful model of
mental processes. For example, both computers and people seem to register, store, and retrieve
information. This computer model inspired much research in the field of cognitive psychology. This
growing field of cognitive psychology studied important processes that behaviorists largely ignored,
R
such as perception, memory, and attention, and ultimately supplanted behaviorism as the dominant
theoretical position within psychology. Contributing to the downfall of behaviorism was Noam
Chomsky's scathing review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior. Skinner believed that language (he
EG
called it verbal behavior) was essentially the product of reinforcement. For example, if saying please
is reinforced, that person may become more polite. Chomsky charged that Skinner's theory of
language was overly simplistic. Children use grammar rules that are not explicitly taught and
generate novel phrases that were never explicitly reinforced.
11. A team of psychologists is working on a project to learn more about consumption of sweet foods. The team
includes a cultural psychologist, a behavioral neuroscientist, a social psychologist, and a developmental
U
psychologist. First, describe the type of work each team member engages in. Then write one research question
that each would be interested to answer.
ANSWER: The answer should provide the following information: (1) Developmental psychologists study the
ways psychological phenomena change over the life span. The developmental psychologist may be
ID
interested in asking "Does consumption of sweet foods change as people age?" (2) Social
psychologists study the causes and consequences of sociality. The social psychologist might ask,
"Does consumption of sweet foods change when the social environment changes?" (3) Behavioral
neuroscientists study the relationship between brain and behavior, and therefore might ask, "How
does the brain change as a result of consumption of sweet foods?" (4) Cultural psychology is the
ES
study of how culture influences mental life. The cultural psychologist may be interested in studying
how culture impacts preferences for sweets or the amount of sweet consumption.
12. How might an evolutionary psychologist explain human behavior that is largely detrimental to the
individual or the culture, such as aggression or a preference for a high-fat diet?
ANSWER: The answer should provide the following information: (1) Evolutionary psychologists believe that
human behavior is the product of millions of years of natural selection. Although these behaviors are
largely detrimental today, they were adaptive in the environment of our ancestors. (2) Our ancestors
who aggressively procured food and sexual partners tended to be the ones who lived and passed on
their genes. (3) In an ancestral environment where food was scarce, those ancestors who had a
preference for high-fat foods obtained the calories that they needed to survive. (4) In today's
Introducing Psychology Fifth Edition
by Daniel Schacter, Daniel Gilbert
SC
O
R
EG
U
ID
ES
,Chapter_01_Essay
1. Describe philosophical dualism and philosophical materialism. Most modern-day psychologists embrace
materialism, but which branch of modern-day psychology explicitly uses this approach in its study of the mind?
ANSWER: The answer should provide the following information: (1) Philosophical dualism is the view that the
mind and body are fundamentally different things. (2) Philosophical materialism is the view that all
mental phenomena are reducible to physical phenomena. (3) In their work, cognitive neuroscientists
study the relationship between the brain and the mind. Because cognitive neuroscientists assume
that the brain and the mind are related, they use a materialist approach.
SC
2. Contrast the views of Locke's realism with Kant's idealism. What position do modern psychologists take on
this issue?
ANSWER: The answer should provide the following information: (1) Locke argued that perceptions of the
physical world are produced entirely by information from the sensory organs. (2) Kant argued that
perceptions of the world involve both information from the sensory organs and the brain's
interpretations of that information. (3) Modern psychologists agree that our perception of the world
is an inference of our brain's best guess at what is there.
O
3. Differentiate between a structuralist and a functionalist approach to understanding consciousness. Identify the
founders of both approaches and the earlier influences that gave rise to these schools of psychology.
ANSWER: The answer should indicate that Wilhelm Wundt began structuralism and was greatly influenced by
R
the physiological research of Helmholtz, for whom he was a research assistant. Structuralism
attempts to identify the basic elements that constitute the mind by deconstructing the conscious
experience through techniques such as introspection. William James began functionalism. He did
EG
not believe that consciousness can be broken down into basic elements; rather, he believed
consciousness was more like a flowing stream than a collection of components. Functionalism
sought to identify the adaptive significance, or functions, of consciousness, rather than
deconstructing it into elements. James was highly influenced by Darwin's theory of natural
selection.
4. Discuss Sigmund Freud's influence on the field of psychology. What are the contributions and critiques of
U
psychoanalytic theory?
ANSWER: The answer should provide the following information: (1) Though many people disagree with
Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory, he is one of the most influential psychologists ever. (2)
Freud had been educated as a physician and noticed that patients were coming into his office with
ID
problems that had no physical justification. Freud decided to talk with these patients about their
psychosomatic symptoms, which were termed hysteria in Freud's day. Over time, he developed a
therapy called psychoanalysis. (3) Freud developed a theory of how the mind works and how people
may be governed by forces of which they are unaware. This idea of an unconscious has had a
tremendous impact on psychology, literature, and art. It also formed the basis of psychoanalysis,
ES
which involves bringing unconscious motivations, desires, and thoughts into the conscious mind. (4)
One limitation of psychoanalytic theory is that it does not lend itself to testable predictions. Because
there is little empirical support for Freud's theories, his influence has diminished over the decades.
Another criticism of psychoanalytic theory is that it portrayed the human condition pessimistically,
positing that human behavior was governed by rather dark forces that were outside of our conscious
awareness.
5. Why would John Watson disagree with the definition of psychology as stated in the textbook?
ANSWER: The answer should indicate that psychology can be defined as the scientific study of behavior and
mental processes. John Watson was the founder of behaviorism. He believed that mental processes
could not be studied scientifically because they were not objectively observable. He believed that if
, psychology was to be a science, it should confine its subject matter to objectively observable
behavior. For this reason, Watson would disagree with the definition of psychology as presented in
the textbook. In fairness to Watson, however, he lived before modern brain-scanning devices
allowed psychologists to make objective observations of the neurological processes underlying
cognition.
6. Compare and contrast Freud's and Skinner's ideas about the forces that control behavior.
ANSWER: Freud believed that behavior was controlled by the unconscious, or the part of the mind that contains
information of which people are not aware. Freud thought that you needed to understand the
SC
contents of the unconscious to understand the person, so he used free association and dream analysis
to study the unconscious. Skinner believed that consequences control behavior. His principle of
reinforcement stated that any behavior that is rewarded will be repeated and any behavior that isn't
rewarded won't. Both Freud and Skinner believed that humans do not have free will over their
behavior. Both Freud's and Skinner's ideas contributed not only to the field of psychology but also
beyond psychology.
O
7. Describe Skinner's ideas about the forces that control behavior. What would contribute to your behavior
related to studying, according to Skinner?
ANSWER: Skinner believed that consequences control behavior. His principle of reinforcement stated that any
behavior that is rewarded will be repeated and any behavior that isn't rewarded won't. Therefore,
R
when students study hard, they may be rewarded with good grades and approval from teachers,
parents, and peers. These students' studying behaviors will be reinforced and are more likely to
occur in the future.
EG
8. Discuss some benefits that behaviorism brought to the field of psychology. Then discuss some problems
associated with behaviorism.
ANSWER: The answer should provide the following information: (1) Behaviorists highlighted the need for
psychologists to study phenomena that were objectively observable. This advanced the science of
psychology. (2) The research of Ivan Pavlov and John Watson demonstrated how associations
between stimuli and responses are formed. (3) Using rats, B. F. Skinner developed a methodology
U
demonstrating that the consequences of behavior determine its future occurrence. This work has
taught psychologists how people, not just rats, learn. His principle of reinforcement pervades
modern psychology. (4) By focusing their study only on observable behavior, however, behaviorists
neglected important areas of study such as perception, memory, cognitive and brain processes, and
ID
language. As a result, most psychologists ultimately shifted away from the behaviorist approach.
9. Humans have a tendency to be afraid of the dark. Provide an explanation of this phenomenon within the
framework of both behaviorism and evolutionary psychology. Are the two explanations necessarily
incompatible?
ES
ANSWER: The answer should provide the following information: (1) Humans tend not to see well at night. As
such, we are prone to accidents when navigating in the dark. In addition, we are at a disadvantage if
surrounded by large nocturnal animals that could possibly harm us. In contrast, hunkering down and
sleeping in small groups at night provides some measure of safety. (2) Behaviorists would focus on
the learning that occurs within an individual's lifetime. For example, the last time Bob went hunting
at night, he broke his ankle and almost got eaten by a lion. Hunting at night, then, has been punished
by its consequences. Conversely, seeking a safe shelter is reinforced with warmth, safety, and
companionship. As a result of these learning experiences, Bob fears the dark and would rather stay
inside. (3) Evolutionary psychologists would note that during the course of mammalian evolution,
our ancestors who ventured outside in the dark tended not to reproduce in great numbers, perhaps
because they fell off cliffs or got eaten by crocodiles. Those ancestors, who just so happened to be
, leery of the dark, lived to pass on their genes. Thus, we are left with the genes of those who did not
particularly enjoy nightly jaunts through the forest. (4) On the surface, the two explanations are very
different. While behaviorists do not deny the role of genetics, they point to the environment as the
major determinant of behavior. As such, a behaviorist would first seek to understand the learning
experiences that shaped an individual's fear of the dark. On the other hand, an evolutionary
psychologist will focus on differential reproductive success as a result of the behavior of our
ancestors. We are left with their genes, and thus, their behavior patterns. (5) The two explanations
are not incompatible, but rather represent different levels of analysis. For example, early mammals
might learn to avoid the dark through natural consequences within their lifetime. Principles of
SC
reinforcement and punishment from a behavioral account would explain this behavior. These are the
mammals that live to reproduce and pass on their genes. To the extent that susceptibility to
reinforcement is, in part, genetically based, we are genetically predisposed to fear the dark due to the
learning experiences of our remote ancestors.
10. Discuss how technological advancements, along with work in the field of linguistics, advanced cognitive
psychology and ultimately led to the downfall of behaviorism as the dominant field within psychology.
O
ANSWER: The answer should indicate that the advent of the computer gave psychologists a useful model of
mental processes. For example, both computers and people seem to register, store, and retrieve
information. This computer model inspired much research in the field of cognitive psychology. This
growing field of cognitive psychology studied important processes that behaviorists largely ignored,
R
such as perception, memory, and attention, and ultimately supplanted behaviorism as the dominant
theoretical position within psychology. Contributing to the downfall of behaviorism was Noam
Chomsky's scathing review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior. Skinner believed that language (he
EG
called it verbal behavior) was essentially the product of reinforcement. For example, if saying please
is reinforced, that person may become more polite. Chomsky charged that Skinner's theory of
language was overly simplistic. Children use grammar rules that are not explicitly taught and
generate novel phrases that were never explicitly reinforced.
11. A team of psychologists is working on a project to learn more about consumption of sweet foods. The team
includes a cultural psychologist, a behavioral neuroscientist, a social psychologist, and a developmental
U
psychologist. First, describe the type of work each team member engages in. Then write one research question
that each would be interested to answer.
ANSWER: The answer should provide the following information: (1) Developmental psychologists study the
ways psychological phenomena change over the life span. The developmental psychologist may be
ID
interested in asking "Does consumption of sweet foods change as people age?" (2) Social
psychologists study the causes and consequences of sociality. The social psychologist might ask,
"Does consumption of sweet foods change when the social environment changes?" (3) Behavioral
neuroscientists study the relationship between brain and behavior, and therefore might ask, "How
does the brain change as a result of consumption of sweet foods?" (4) Cultural psychology is the
ES
study of how culture influences mental life. The cultural psychologist may be interested in studying
how culture impacts preferences for sweets or the amount of sweet consumption.
12. How might an evolutionary psychologist explain human behavior that is largely detrimental to the
individual or the culture, such as aggression or a preference for a high-fat diet?
ANSWER: The answer should provide the following information: (1) Evolutionary psychologists believe that
human behavior is the product of millions of years of natural selection. Although these behaviors are
largely detrimental today, they were adaptive in the environment of our ancestors. (2) Our ancestors
who aggressively procured food and sexual partners tended to be the ones who lived and passed on
their genes. (3) In an ancestral environment where food was scarce, those ancestors who had a
preference for high-fat foods obtained the calories that they needed to survive. (4) In today's
