1
SUMMARY RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCES ESSAY
PLANS- PHILOSOPHY & ETHICS A LEVEL-
2026 LATEST VERSION
Theme 1
A: Divine common theory
Explain Divine Command Theory, with reference to Robert Adams. [AO1 25]
1. Divine Command Theory is an: Meta ethical theory = beyond ethics ,
Absolutist : unchanging so some actions are always right/wrong,
Deontological : duty to follow God's rules
2. Sees God as the origin and regulator of morality – what is good is what
God says is good. “God, if he exists, is the greatest relativist of them all.”
(J. Baggini)
3. A moral action is therefore one which God commands: can be revealed
in scripture
4. Right and wrong are seen as eternal, objective truths based on God’s will
as the divine lawgiver, and stem from his omnipotence so there can be
no moral standard outside of God’s control .e.g murder is wrong
because he says so “...if you obey my voice and keep my covenant, you
shall be my treasured possession out of all the peoples.” (Exodus 19:5)
5. objective truths-based form the foundation of any human system of
morality as certain actions will always be right or wrong, regardless of
opinion
6. The Euthyphro dilemma: asks whether something is holy because it is
approved by the gods or whether the gods only approve what is holy
7. Adams’ version: overcomes the criticism of arbitrariness If to be moral is
to be approved by God, what is to stop morality being simply the whim
of God at the time?
8. Adams’ version of Divine Command Theory states that morality is
grounded in the character of God. So whatever he does is reflective in
his character.
9. This addresses the strand of the Euthyphro dilemma that leads to the
arbitrariness challenge without having to accept a moral standard
outside God’s control.
A: challenges to DCT
Explain the challenges to Divine Command Theory. [AO1 25]
,2
1. Euthyphro dilemma : 2 horns : Is good commanded by God because its
right : not divine higher beings than him or is good right because God
said : God can command anything as approved by him
2. The Arbitrariness Problem: God commanding random and it being
perceived as good ,no special quality to commands so good isn't good
e.g 10 commandments
3. The Pluralism Objection: In a world of religious pluralism it is impossible
to know which of God's commands should be followed, especially
because some religions contradict each other
4. if a person believes that one religion is correct, there remains a plurality
of understandings within specific religions: Catholic Christians believe
that God commands contraception is wrong but some Anglicans believe
God does not command this.
A02: God commanding morality
‘Morality is whatever God commands it to be.’ Evaluate this view. [AO2 30]
1. The Euthyphro dilemma : is an action good because it is loved by God or
does God only love good actions?
2. Arbitress problem: God could command actions which we would regard
as wrong, but these would have to be seen as moral according to this
view. This makes morality completely arbitrary.
3. There could be a moral standard higher than God, Qs God’s
omnipotence.
4. Adams' modified divine command: Solution to ED, he will not command
actions that we might see as immoral.
5. morality can only be based on God’s commands as God is the creator of
the universe and morality is built into the universe as part of God’s plan.
6. God is the only objective source of morality – Reliance on God’s
commands offers a secure and consistent guide for life.
7. It could be argued, however that God’s commands are not entirely
consistent. Different religions claim that different things are
commanded by God.
8. Augustine both identify inconsistencies within the Old Testament which
raise questions about God’s omnibenevolence.
A02: good person more than the deeds
Whether being a good person is better than doing good deeds (30 marks)
1. Main issue is to challenge idea that morality as following a set of
instructions to be a good person. Virtue theory holds that this idea is too
simplistic
,3
2. Doing good deeds makes you a good person: grounded in the action not
the person so too simplistic. A good deed could be done with impure
motives e,g charity
3. Person actively chooses good over bad so even with bad intention
doesn't make them less good, end product the same
4. VT counters this, developing virtues enables people to learn to become
moral. Developing virtues allows self-development a person grows
morally and recognises good as beyond an action itself
5. VT argues being a good person involves developing independence to do
good naturally
6. Virtuous person is an example and clear principles arise from within
rather than being imposed from outside. VT agrees with the statement
7. Conc: goodness is more than good acts, but good acts is an indicator for
good character
B: Virtue theory Aristotle
Explain Virtue Theory with reference to Aristotle and its challenges
1. Virtue theory is an ethical system : Agent-centred - assessment of
person not their actions, Teleological - achieving good character by
considering mental state and Focuses on persons character
2. Aristotle argued that the ultimate aim of human life was eudaimonia
(happiness). Only be achieved through the development of the virtues.
“Happiness, then, is something final and self-sufficient, and is the end of
action.”
3. Happiness is therefore the activity of cultivating a virtuous personality
and thus acting in a virtuous way. This involves aspects of enjoyment,
freedom and reflection and contemplation in order to make life full and
complete.
4. Aristotle distinguished between intellectual and moral virtues: The
intellectual virtues could be cultivated by instruction, but the moral
virtues are cultivated through practice. “Moral virtue comes about as a
result of habit.”
5. Aristotle included such qualities as courage, liberality, temperance, pride
(high-mindedness), right ambition
6. •moral virtue is seen to be the mean between excess and deficiency. For
example, courage is the mean between cowardice and foolhardiness.
7. The doctrine of the mean: should find middle ground, some may find
easier than others. 3 types of people sophron (easy to be
, 4
moderate),Enkrates (works hard to achieve virtue) Ankrates (weak
willed)
8. •exercising the virtues must be done in community : shows that
eudaimonia is a collective rather than an individual goal
9. Virtues in Christianity e.g. Jesus teaching on virtue as found in the
Beatitudes (mattew): “blessed are the poor in spirit for theirs is the
kingdom of heaven.” ”blessed be the peacemakers, for they will be
called children of God''
Challenges:
1. Not a practical guide to moral behaviour: vague and more guidance
needed if attempted to use in a moral system. Too much dependance on
a person, too individualistic so not practical for society as a whole = too
complex
2. Issue of cultural relativism: various behaviours could be accepted one
place but not another e.g. courage seen as putting up with injustice
elsewhere would mean active participation in tyranny
3. Can be used for immoral acts: very subjective, self-centred and no
guarantee that it will produce a moral action
A02: virtue theory usefulness in moral decisions
‘Virtue Theory offers little guidance when making moral decisions.’ Evaluate
this view.
1. S: VT gives no clear guidelines, too subjective for moral dilemmas “It is
no easy task to find the middle.”
2. S: Aristotle indicates that a virtuous person will naturally make good
moral decisions: means no clear way of making a correct choice either
by following rules or by assessing consequences.
3. A: subjective is a strength: avoids the pitfalls of both absolutist and
relativist theories.
4. Virtue theory allows for two equally virtuous actions to be correct in a
particular circumstance and no single fixed point of morality and that
equally rational.This is good as it reflects decision making in the real
world.
5. S: the lack of guidance may be seen to encourage too much
interpretation, may lead to an ‘anything goes’ form of morality which
many would frown upon.
SUMMARY RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCES ESSAY
PLANS- PHILOSOPHY & ETHICS A LEVEL-
2026 LATEST VERSION
Theme 1
A: Divine common theory
Explain Divine Command Theory, with reference to Robert Adams. [AO1 25]
1. Divine Command Theory is an: Meta ethical theory = beyond ethics ,
Absolutist : unchanging so some actions are always right/wrong,
Deontological : duty to follow God's rules
2. Sees God as the origin and regulator of morality – what is good is what
God says is good. “God, if he exists, is the greatest relativist of them all.”
(J. Baggini)
3. A moral action is therefore one which God commands: can be revealed
in scripture
4. Right and wrong are seen as eternal, objective truths based on God’s will
as the divine lawgiver, and stem from his omnipotence so there can be
no moral standard outside of God’s control .e.g murder is wrong
because he says so “...if you obey my voice and keep my covenant, you
shall be my treasured possession out of all the peoples.” (Exodus 19:5)
5. objective truths-based form the foundation of any human system of
morality as certain actions will always be right or wrong, regardless of
opinion
6. The Euthyphro dilemma: asks whether something is holy because it is
approved by the gods or whether the gods only approve what is holy
7. Adams’ version: overcomes the criticism of arbitrariness If to be moral is
to be approved by God, what is to stop morality being simply the whim
of God at the time?
8. Adams’ version of Divine Command Theory states that morality is
grounded in the character of God. So whatever he does is reflective in
his character.
9. This addresses the strand of the Euthyphro dilemma that leads to the
arbitrariness challenge without having to accept a moral standard
outside God’s control.
A: challenges to DCT
Explain the challenges to Divine Command Theory. [AO1 25]
,2
1. Euthyphro dilemma : 2 horns : Is good commanded by God because its
right : not divine higher beings than him or is good right because God
said : God can command anything as approved by him
2. The Arbitrariness Problem: God commanding random and it being
perceived as good ,no special quality to commands so good isn't good
e.g 10 commandments
3. The Pluralism Objection: In a world of religious pluralism it is impossible
to know which of God's commands should be followed, especially
because some religions contradict each other
4. if a person believes that one religion is correct, there remains a plurality
of understandings within specific religions: Catholic Christians believe
that God commands contraception is wrong but some Anglicans believe
God does not command this.
A02: God commanding morality
‘Morality is whatever God commands it to be.’ Evaluate this view. [AO2 30]
1. The Euthyphro dilemma : is an action good because it is loved by God or
does God only love good actions?
2. Arbitress problem: God could command actions which we would regard
as wrong, but these would have to be seen as moral according to this
view. This makes morality completely arbitrary.
3. There could be a moral standard higher than God, Qs God’s
omnipotence.
4. Adams' modified divine command: Solution to ED, he will not command
actions that we might see as immoral.
5. morality can only be based on God’s commands as God is the creator of
the universe and morality is built into the universe as part of God’s plan.
6. God is the only objective source of morality – Reliance on God’s
commands offers a secure and consistent guide for life.
7. It could be argued, however that God’s commands are not entirely
consistent. Different religions claim that different things are
commanded by God.
8. Augustine both identify inconsistencies within the Old Testament which
raise questions about God’s omnibenevolence.
A02: good person more than the deeds
Whether being a good person is better than doing good deeds (30 marks)
1. Main issue is to challenge idea that morality as following a set of
instructions to be a good person. Virtue theory holds that this idea is too
simplistic
,3
2. Doing good deeds makes you a good person: grounded in the action not
the person so too simplistic. A good deed could be done with impure
motives e,g charity
3. Person actively chooses good over bad so even with bad intention
doesn't make them less good, end product the same
4. VT counters this, developing virtues enables people to learn to become
moral. Developing virtues allows self-development a person grows
morally and recognises good as beyond an action itself
5. VT argues being a good person involves developing independence to do
good naturally
6. Virtuous person is an example and clear principles arise from within
rather than being imposed from outside. VT agrees with the statement
7. Conc: goodness is more than good acts, but good acts is an indicator for
good character
B: Virtue theory Aristotle
Explain Virtue Theory with reference to Aristotle and its challenges
1. Virtue theory is an ethical system : Agent-centred - assessment of
person not their actions, Teleological - achieving good character by
considering mental state and Focuses on persons character
2. Aristotle argued that the ultimate aim of human life was eudaimonia
(happiness). Only be achieved through the development of the virtues.
“Happiness, then, is something final and self-sufficient, and is the end of
action.”
3. Happiness is therefore the activity of cultivating a virtuous personality
and thus acting in a virtuous way. This involves aspects of enjoyment,
freedom and reflection and contemplation in order to make life full and
complete.
4. Aristotle distinguished between intellectual and moral virtues: The
intellectual virtues could be cultivated by instruction, but the moral
virtues are cultivated through practice. “Moral virtue comes about as a
result of habit.”
5. Aristotle included such qualities as courage, liberality, temperance, pride
(high-mindedness), right ambition
6. •moral virtue is seen to be the mean between excess and deficiency. For
example, courage is the mean between cowardice and foolhardiness.
7. The doctrine of the mean: should find middle ground, some may find
easier than others. 3 types of people sophron (easy to be
, 4
moderate),Enkrates (works hard to achieve virtue) Ankrates (weak
willed)
8. •exercising the virtues must be done in community : shows that
eudaimonia is a collective rather than an individual goal
9. Virtues in Christianity e.g. Jesus teaching on virtue as found in the
Beatitudes (mattew): “blessed are the poor in spirit for theirs is the
kingdom of heaven.” ”blessed be the peacemakers, for they will be
called children of God''
Challenges:
1. Not a practical guide to moral behaviour: vague and more guidance
needed if attempted to use in a moral system. Too much dependance on
a person, too individualistic so not practical for society as a whole = too
complex
2. Issue of cultural relativism: various behaviours could be accepted one
place but not another e.g. courage seen as putting up with injustice
elsewhere would mean active participation in tyranny
3. Can be used for immoral acts: very subjective, self-centred and no
guarantee that it will produce a moral action
A02: virtue theory usefulness in moral decisions
‘Virtue Theory offers little guidance when making moral decisions.’ Evaluate
this view.
1. S: VT gives no clear guidelines, too subjective for moral dilemmas “It is
no easy task to find the middle.”
2. S: Aristotle indicates that a virtuous person will naturally make good
moral decisions: means no clear way of making a correct choice either
by following rules or by assessing consequences.
3. A: subjective is a strength: avoids the pitfalls of both absolutist and
relativist theories.
4. Virtue theory allows for two equally virtuous actions to be correct in a
particular circumstance and no single fixed point of morality and that
equally rational.This is good as it reflects decision making in the real
world.
5. S: the lack of guidance may be seen to encourage too much
interpretation, may lead to an ‘anything goes’ form of morality which
many would frown upon.
