Research methods for the behavioral sciences (5th
edition, Charles Stangor)
Chapter 1: Introduction to Research
Behavioral research Research designed to study the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of
human beings and animals.
Empirical Based on systematic collection of data.
Data Information collected through formal observation or measurement.
Hindsight bias The tendency to think that we could have predicted something that
we probably could not have predicted.
Scientific method The intentional alteration or fabrication of scientific data.
Objective Free from personal bias or emotion.
Values Personal beliefs of an individual.
Facts Information that is objectively true.
Research report A document that presents scientific findings using a standardized
written format.
Basic research Research designed to answer fundamental questions rather than to
address a specific real-world problem.
Applied research Research designed investigate issues that have implications for
everyday life and to provide solutions to real-world problems.
Program evaluation Research designed to study intervention programs, such as after-
research school programs or prenatal care clinics, with the goal of determining
whether the programs are effective in helping the people who make
use of them.
Research design A specific method used to collect, analyze, and interpret data.
Descriptive research Research designed to answer questions about the current state of
affairs.
Qualitative research Descriptive research that is focused on observing and describing
events as they occur, with the goal of capturing all of the richness of
everyday behavior.
Quantitative research Descriptive research in which the collected data are subjected to
formal statistical analysis.
Correlational research Research that involves the measurement of two or more relevant
variables and an assessment of the relationship between or among
those variables.
Variable Any attribute that can assume different values, for instance, among
different people or across different times and places.
Pearson product-moment A statistic used to assess the direction and the size of the relationship
correlation coefficient between two variables.
Experimental research Research that includes the manipulation of a given situation or
experience for two or more groups of individuals who are initially
created to be equivalent, followed by a measurement of the effect of
that experience.
Converging operations Using more than one measurement or research approach to study a
given topic, with the hope that all of the approaches will produce
similar results.
The tendency to think that we could have predicted something that we probably could not have
predicted is called the hindsight bias.
,Scientists draw a distinction between values and facts. Values are personal statements. Because
values cannot be considered to be either true or false, science cannot prove or disprove them. Facts
are objective statements determined to be accurate through empirical study.
One way that the scientist’s values influence research is in the types of research that he/she finds
important to study. Some scientists conduct research primarily of or the intellectual satisfaction of
knowing something, whereas others conduct research for the purpose of gaining practical knowledge
about a particular social issue or problem.
- Basic research answers fundamental questions about behavior. There is no particular reason
to study such things except to acquire a better knowledge of how these processes occur.
- Applied research investigates issues that have implications for everyday life and provide
solutions to everyday problems.
One type of applied research is called program evaluation research, which is conducted
to study the effectiveness of methods designed to make positive social changes, such as
training programs, antiprejudice programs, and after-school learning programs.
Applied research and basic research inform each other. Basic research provides underlying principles
that can be used to solve specific problems, and applied research gives ideas for the kinds of topics
that basic research can study.
Research Designs (specific method a researcher uses to collect, analyze and interpret data): Three
Approaches to Studying Behavior
1. Descriptive research designs; This type of research provides a snapshot of thoughts, feelings,
or behaviors at a given place and a given time.
Surveys and interviews
Naturalistic observation; based on observations of everyday events
Quantitative versus quantitative research; Qualitative research is descriptive research
that is focused on observing and describing events as they occur, with the goal of
capturing all of the richness of everyday behavior and with the hope of discovering and
understanding phenomena that might have been missed if only more cursory
examinations had been used. The data that form the basis of qualitative research are in
their original rich form—for instance, descriptive narratives such as field notes and audio
or video recordings. Quantitative research is descriptive research that uses more formal
measures of behavior, including questionnaires and systematic observation of behavior,
which are designed to be subjected to statistical analysis. The strength qualitative
research is that it vividly describes ongoing behavior in its original form.
Advantages descriptive research; it attempts to capture the complexity of everyday
behavior. Descriptive research is used to provide a relatively complete understanding
of what is happening.
Disadvantages descriptive research; it is limited to providing static pictures.
2. Correlational research designs; involves the measurement of two or more relevant variables
and an assessment of the relationship between or among those variables.
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient (r)
Advantages correlational research; can be used to assess behavior as it occurs in
people’s everyday lives.
Disadvantages correlational research; correlational studies cannot be used to
identify causal relationships among the variables.
, 3. Experimental research designs; involves the active creation or manipulation of a given
situation or experience lor two or more groups of individuals, followed by a measurement of
the effect of those experiences on thoughts feelings, or behavior.
Advantage experimental research; the ability to draw conclusions about causal
relationships.
Disadvantage experimental research; cannot be used to study the most important social
questions facing today’s society, including violence, racism, poverty and homelessness,
because the conditions of interest cannot be manipulated by the experimenter.
Using more than one technique (such as more than one research design) to study the same thing,
with the hope that all of the approaches will produce similar findings, is known as converging
operations.
Chapter 2: Developing the Research Hypothesis
Inductive method The observation of specific get ideas about more general relationships
among variables.
Abstracts Written summaries of research reports.
Laws Principles that are so general that they are assumed to apply to all
situations.
Theory An integrated set of principles that explains and predicts many, but
not all, observed relationships within a given domain of inquiry.
Deductive method The use of a theory to generate specific ideas that can be tested
through research.
General In relation to a theory, summarizing many different outcomes.
Parsimonious In relation to a theory, providing the simplest possible account of an
outcome or outcomes.
Falsifiable A characteristic of a theory or research hypothesis such that the
variables of interest can be adequately measured and the expected
relationship between the variables can be shown though research to
be incorrect.
Tautological A characteristic of a theory or research hypothesis such that it cannot
be dis-confirmed.
Research hypothesis A specific and falsifiable prediction regarding the relationship
between or among two or more variables.
Independent variable In an experiment, the variable that is manipulated by the researcher.
Dependent variable In an experiment, the variable that is caused by the independent
variable.
Scientists develop their ideas about what to study in a number of different ways:
- Solving Important Real-World problems
- Using Observation and Intuition
Getting ideas about the relationships among variables by observing specific facts is
known as the inductive method. In this approach, your own curiosity becomes the
source of your ideas.
- Using Existing Research
Finding Limiting Conditions
Explaining Conflicting Findings
- Doing a Literature Search; looking at what other scientists already have done. Helps prevent
duplication of effort and may help you avoid problems that others have had.
, - Locating Sources of Information
Primary sources; research reports that contain complete descriptions of the collected
data and the data analyses.
Secondary sources; documents that contain only summaries or interpretations of the
research reports rather than a complete description of them (textbooks, books written
by a single author, edited books).
- Conducting the Search; Generally, a literature search will be most efficient if it (1) starts at
broad, general level (secondary sources) and then progresses to more specific levels (primary
sources) and (2) starts with the newest available information and uses this information to
progress backward toward previous research.
Investigating Computer Databases
Using Keywords Effectively
Using Abstracts to Select Important Documents
Formulizing ideas into research hypotheses;
- Laws; Principles that are so general as to apply to all situations.
- Theory; an integrated set of principles that explains and predicts many, but not all, observed
relationships within a given domain of inquiry. The process of using a theory to generate
specific ideas that can be tested through research is known as the deductive method.
The Components of a Good Theory: Good theories are general, meaning that they
summarize many different outcomes. They are parsimonious, meaning that they provide
the simplest possible account of those outcomes. Good theories provide ideas for future
research. Good theories are falsifiable which means that the variables of interest can be
adequately measured and the relationships between the variables that are predicted by
the theory can be shown through research to be incorrect.
Judgment of a Theory’s Utility; theories in which the variables cannot be measured or in
which the variables are vague enough that they cannot provide information to falsify the
theory are called tautological.
- The Research Hypothesis; A research hypothesis can be defined as a specific and falsifiable
prediction regarding the relationship between or among two or more variables. Experimental
research designs the research hypothesis involves the relationship between an independent
variable (experimental manipulation) and a dependent variable (variable that is caused by
the independent variable).
Chapter 3: Ethics in Research
Informed consent The practice of providing research participants with information
about the nature of the research project before they make a
decision about whether or not to participate.
Deception The practice of not completely and fully informing research
participants about the nature of a research project before they
participate in it; sometimes used when the research could not be
conducted if participants knew what was really being studied.
Simulation study Research in which participants are fully informed about the nature
of the research and asked to behave ‘as if’ they were in a social
setting of interest.
Debriefing Information given to a participant immediately after an experiment
has ended that is designed to both explain the purposes and
edition, Charles Stangor)
Chapter 1: Introduction to Research
Behavioral research Research designed to study the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of
human beings and animals.
Empirical Based on systematic collection of data.
Data Information collected through formal observation or measurement.
Hindsight bias The tendency to think that we could have predicted something that
we probably could not have predicted.
Scientific method The intentional alteration or fabrication of scientific data.
Objective Free from personal bias or emotion.
Values Personal beliefs of an individual.
Facts Information that is objectively true.
Research report A document that presents scientific findings using a standardized
written format.
Basic research Research designed to answer fundamental questions rather than to
address a specific real-world problem.
Applied research Research designed investigate issues that have implications for
everyday life and to provide solutions to real-world problems.
Program evaluation Research designed to study intervention programs, such as after-
research school programs or prenatal care clinics, with the goal of determining
whether the programs are effective in helping the people who make
use of them.
Research design A specific method used to collect, analyze, and interpret data.
Descriptive research Research designed to answer questions about the current state of
affairs.
Qualitative research Descriptive research that is focused on observing and describing
events as they occur, with the goal of capturing all of the richness of
everyday behavior.
Quantitative research Descriptive research in which the collected data are subjected to
formal statistical analysis.
Correlational research Research that involves the measurement of two or more relevant
variables and an assessment of the relationship between or among
those variables.
Variable Any attribute that can assume different values, for instance, among
different people or across different times and places.
Pearson product-moment A statistic used to assess the direction and the size of the relationship
correlation coefficient between two variables.
Experimental research Research that includes the manipulation of a given situation or
experience for two or more groups of individuals who are initially
created to be equivalent, followed by a measurement of the effect of
that experience.
Converging operations Using more than one measurement or research approach to study a
given topic, with the hope that all of the approaches will produce
similar results.
The tendency to think that we could have predicted something that we probably could not have
predicted is called the hindsight bias.
,Scientists draw a distinction between values and facts. Values are personal statements. Because
values cannot be considered to be either true or false, science cannot prove or disprove them. Facts
are objective statements determined to be accurate through empirical study.
One way that the scientist’s values influence research is in the types of research that he/she finds
important to study. Some scientists conduct research primarily of or the intellectual satisfaction of
knowing something, whereas others conduct research for the purpose of gaining practical knowledge
about a particular social issue or problem.
- Basic research answers fundamental questions about behavior. There is no particular reason
to study such things except to acquire a better knowledge of how these processes occur.
- Applied research investigates issues that have implications for everyday life and provide
solutions to everyday problems.
One type of applied research is called program evaluation research, which is conducted
to study the effectiveness of methods designed to make positive social changes, such as
training programs, antiprejudice programs, and after-school learning programs.
Applied research and basic research inform each other. Basic research provides underlying principles
that can be used to solve specific problems, and applied research gives ideas for the kinds of topics
that basic research can study.
Research Designs (specific method a researcher uses to collect, analyze and interpret data): Three
Approaches to Studying Behavior
1. Descriptive research designs; This type of research provides a snapshot of thoughts, feelings,
or behaviors at a given place and a given time.
Surveys and interviews
Naturalistic observation; based on observations of everyday events
Quantitative versus quantitative research; Qualitative research is descriptive research
that is focused on observing and describing events as they occur, with the goal of
capturing all of the richness of everyday behavior and with the hope of discovering and
understanding phenomena that might have been missed if only more cursory
examinations had been used. The data that form the basis of qualitative research are in
their original rich form—for instance, descriptive narratives such as field notes and audio
or video recordings. Quantitative research is descriptive research that uses more formal
measures of behavior, including questionnaires and systematic observation of behavior,
which are designed to be subjected to statistical analysis. The strength qualitative
research is that it vividly describes ongoing behavior in its original form.
Advantages descriptive research; it attempts to capture the complexity of everyday
behavior. Descriptive research is used to provide a relatively complete understanding
of what is happening.
Disadvantages descriptive research; it is limited to providing static pictures.
2. Correlational research designs; involves the measurement of two or more relevant variables
and an assessment of the relationship between or among those variables.
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient (r)
Advantages correlational research; can be used to assess behavior as it occurs in
people’s everyday lives.
Disadvantages correlational research; correlational studies cannot be used to
identify causal relationships among the variables.
, 3. Experimental research designs; involves the active creation or manipulation of a given
situation or experience lor two or more groups of individuals, followed by a measurement of
the effect of those experiences on thoughts feelings, or behavior.
Advantage experimental research; the ability to draw conclusions about causal
relationships.
Disadvantage experimental research; cannot be used to study the most important social
questions facing today’s society, including violence, racism, poverty and homelessness,
because the conditions of interest cannot be manipulated by the experimenter.
Using more than one technique (such as more than one research design) to study the same thing,
with the hope that all of the approaches will produce similar findings, is known as converging
operations.
Chapter 2: Developing the Research Hypothesis
Inductive method The observation of specific get ideas about more general relationships
among variables.
Abstracts Written summaries of research reports.
Laws Principles that are so general that they are assumed to apply to all
situations.
Theory An integrated set of principles that explains and predicts many, but
not all, observed relationships within a given domain of inquiry.
Deductive method The use of a theory to generate specific ideas that can be tested
through research.
General In relation to a theory, summarizing many different outcomes.
Parsimonious In relation to a theory, providing the simplest possible account of an
outcome or outcomes.
Falsifiable A characteristic of a theory or research hypothesis such that the
variables of interest can be adequately measured and the expected
relationship between the variables can be shown though research to
be incorrect.
Tautological A characteristic of a theory or research hypothesis such that it cannot
be dis-confirmed.
Research hypothesis A specific and falsifiable prediction regarding the relationship
between or among two or more variables.
Independent variable In an experiment, the variable that is manipulated by the researcher.
Dependent variable In an experiment, the variable that is caused by the independent
variable.
Scientists develop their ideas about what to study in a number of different ways:
- Solving Important Real-World problems
- Using Observation and Intuition
Getting ideas about the relationships among variables by observing specific facts is
known as the inductive method. In this approach, your own curiosity becomes the
source of your ideas.
- Using Existing Research
Finding Limiting Conditions
Explaining Conflicting Findings
- Doing a Literature Search; looking at what other scientists already have done. Helps prevent
duplication of effort and may help you avoid problems that others have had.
, - Locating Sources of Information
Primary sources; research reports that contain complete descriptions of the collected
data and the data analyses.
Secondary sources; documents that contain only summaries or interpretations of the
research reports rather than a complete description of them (textbooks, books written
by a single author, edited books).
- Conducting the Search; Generally, a literature search will be most efficient if it (1) starts at
broad, general level (secondary sources) and then progresses to more specific levels (primary
sources) and (2) starts with the newest available information and uses this information to
progress backward toward previous research.
Investigating Computer Databases
Using Keywords Effectively
Using Abstracts to Select Important Documents
Formulizing ideas into research hypotheses;
- Laws; Principles that are so general as to apply to all situations.
- Theory; an integrated set of principles that explains and predicts many, but not all, observed
relationships within a given domain of inquiry. The process of using a theory to generate
specific ideas that can be tested through research is known as the deductive method.
The Components of a Good Theory: Good theories are general, meaning that they
summarize many different outcomes. They are parsimonious, meaning that they provide
the simplest possible account of those outcomes. Good theories provide ideas for future
research. Good theories are falsifiable which means that the variables of interest can be
adequately measured and the relationships between the variables that are predicted by
the theory can be shown through research to be incorrect.
Judgment of a Theory’s Utility; theories in which the variables cannot be measured or in
which the variables are vague enough that they cannot provide information to falsify the
theory are called tautological.
- The Research Hypothesis; A research hypothesis can be defined as a specific and falsifiable
prediction regarding the relationship between or among two or more variables. Experimental
research designs the research hypothesis involves the relationship between an independent
variable (experimental manipulation) and a dependent variable (variable that is caused by
the independent variable).
Chapter 3: Ethics in Research
Informed consent The practice of providing research participants with information
about the nature of the research project before they make a
decision about whether or not to participate.
Deception The practice of not completely and fully informing research
participants about the nature of a research project before they
participate in it; sometimes used when the research could not be
conducted if participants knew what was really being studied.
Simulation study Research in which participants are fully informed about the nature
of the research and asked to behave ‘as if’ they were in a social
setting of interest.
Debriefing Information given to a participant immediately after an experiment
has ended that is designed to both explain the purposes and
