International Development Readings
1. Introduction
What is Development? (Sen)
- Development should be seen as a process of expanding capabilities and freedoms
rather than just economic growth.
- Freedom is both the means and the end of development. It is about removing the
unfreedoms that restrict people's choices and opportunities.
- Five Key Freedoms:
1. Political Freedoms – Right to vote, express opinions, and scrutinize
governance.
2. Economic Facilities – Access to income, resources, and credit for
participation in the economy.
3. Social Opportunities – Education, healthcare, and social services to improve
well-being.
4. Transparency Guarantees – Accountability in governance to prevent
corruption.
5. Protective Security – Social safety nets to protect against extreme
deprivation.
- Which is the most important? They complement each other; no single
freedom is always first.
- Example: Without education (social opportunity), people cannot
effectively participate in politics (political freedom).
📌 Key Notes on "Development as Freedom" by Amartya Sen
1. Measuring Development Beyond GDP
- Traditional measures like GDP are inadequate because wealth alone does
not ensure a good life.
- Life satisfaction and GDP (Stevenson & Wolfers, 2008) show a correlation,
but happiness depends on broader factors.
2. Sen’s Capability Approach
- Development should focus on enhancing people's ability to lead lives they
value.
- Example: A person with a high income but no access to healthcare or
education still lacks real freedom.
3. Forms of Unfreedom
- Unfreedoms limit human potential and must be removed for true
development.
- Examples:
- Poverty → Prevents access to basic needs.
- Gender Inequality → Restricts choices and opportunities (e.g.,
"missing women" issue in South Asia and China).
- Political Oppression → Restricts participation and rights (e.g.,
authoritarian regimes limiting democracy).
, - The Lee Thesis (Singapore Model) claims that economic growth can happen
without democracy.
- Sen disagrees, showing that democracies are better at preventing
famines and economic crises.
4. Processes and Opportunities
- Two key aspects of freedom:
1. Process Aspect → Institutions & governance (e.g., voting,
democracy).
2. Opportunity Aspect → Access to resources & capabilities (e.g.,
education, healthcare).
- Development must balance both:
1. Libertarians focus on legal processes but ignore inequality.
2. Consequentialists focus on opportunities but ignore personal agency.
- Sen's Approach → True development ensures both freedoms and
opportunities.
5. The Two Roles of Freedom
i. Freedom as an Evaluative Criterion: A society's success should be judged by
substantive freedoms, not just GDP.
ii. Freedom as an Instrumental Tool: More freedom → More participation →
More progress.
- Agency: People should be active participants, not passive recipients of
aid or policies.
6. Evaluative Systems: Incomes vs. Capabilities
- Income ≠ Development
- High income does not guarantee well-being (e.g., African Americans
have lower life expectancy than poorer Chinese and Indians).
- Capability Deprivation
- Lack of education, healthcare, or rights can limit opportunities even
with a high income.
7. Poverty, Inequality, & Mortality
- Poverty is more than income – It is about capability deprivation (illiteracy,
malnutrition, lack of healthcare).
8. Unemployment as Unfreedom
- Even in rich countries (e.g., in Europe), unemployment leads to social
exclusion, loss of confidence, and poor mental health.
9. Markets and Freedoms
- Markets contribute to development but must be regulated to prevent
corruption and inequality.
10. Freedom vs. Efficiency
- Markets increase prosperity, but freedom itself has intrinsic value beyond just
economic outcomes.
11. Culmination vs. Comprehensive Outcomes
- Culmination = Only the final outcome (e.g., income).
- Comprehensive = Process + Outcome (e.g., rights, choices, participation).
12. Tradition, Culture, & Democracy
- Should development replace traditions? Sen argues that people should
decide for themselves.
- Authoritarian enforcement of tradition equals = Unfreedom.
, - Education & participation ensure informed decisions about cultural change.
Key Takeaways
✅ Development is about expanding real freedoms, not just economic growth.
✅ Removing unfreedoms (poverty, lack of education, oppression) is key to
progress.
✅ Freedom is both an end and a means – it creates and sustains development.
✅ Both processes (democracy and rights) and opportunities (resources and
services) matter.
✅ Economic growth alone is insufficient – capabilities define well-being.
2. State as A Development Institution: Origin
1. Guns, Germs, and Steel: Farmer Power (Diamond, 1998)
Why Farming Provided an Advantage Over Hunter-Gathering
● More Food = More People
○ Farming produced 10-100 times more food per acre than hunting/gathering.
○ Allowed larger, denser populations, leading to military & technological
advantages.
● Role of Domesticated Animals
○ Food: Meat, milk, dairy products.
○ Farming Efficiency: Plowing with oxen/horses.
○ Fertilizer: Manure improves soil productivity.
Impact of Farming on Societal Development
● Sedentary Lifestyle → Stored surplus food → Population growth
● Surplus food → Supported specialists (rulers, soldiers, bureaucrats, artisans)
● Political & Military Power:
○ Farming societies had hierarchical structures (unlike egalitarian hunter-
gatherers).
○ Full-time armies → British Empire vs. Māori (New Zealand) – The British
had professional soldiers; the Māori could not sustain them.
Technological & Military Advantages of Farming
● Storage & Specialization → Development of writing, metal tools, and
organized trade.
● Animal Transport:
○ Horses, camels → Enabled long-distance trade & rapid military
expansion.
○ Horse-drawn warfare (chariots, cavalry) gave military superiority.
○ Spanish conquest of the Americas relied on horses.
● Germs & Epidemics
○ Farming communities lived with animals → Exposure to zoonotic
diseases (smallpox, flu, measles).
○ European colonial expansion – Diseases wiped out indigenous populations
(up to 99% mortality in Native Americans).
Why Eurasian Societies Dominated
1. Introduction
What is Development? (Sen)
- Development should be seen as a process of expanding capabilities and freedoms
rather than just economic growth.
- Freedom is both the means and the end of development. It is about removing the
unfreedoms that restrict people's choices and opportunities.
- Five Key Freedoms:
1. Political Freedoms – Right to vote, express opinions, and scrutinize
governance.
2. Economic Facilities – Access to income, resources, and credit for
participation in the economy.
3. Social Opportunities – Education, healthcare, and social services to improve
well-being.
4. Transparency Guarantees – Accountability in governance to prevent
corruption.
5. Protective Security – Social safety nets to protect against extreme
deprivation.
- Which is the most important? They complement each other; no single
freedom is always first.
- Example: Without education (social opportunity), people cannot
effectively participate in politics (political freedom).
📌 Key Notes on "Development as Freedom" by Amartya Sen
1. Measuring Development Beyond GDP
- Traditional measures like GDP are inadequate because wealth alone does
not ensure a good life.
- Life satisfaction and GDP (Stevenson & Wolfers, 2008) show a correlation,
but happiness depends on broader factors.
2. Sen’s Capability Approach
- Development should focus on enhancing people's ability to lead lives they
value.
- Example: A person with a high income but no access to healthcare or
education still lacks real freedom.
3. Forms of Unfreedom
- Unfreedoms limit human potential and must be removed for true
development.
- Examples:
- Poverty → Prevents access to basic needs.
- Gender Inequality → Restricts choices and opportunities (e.g.,
"missing women" issue in South Asia and China).
- Political Oppression → Restricts participation and rights (e.g.,
authoritarian regimes limiting democracy).
, - The Lee Thesis (Singapore Model) claims that economic growth can happen
without democracy.
- Sen disagrees, showing that democracies are better at preventing
famines and economic crises.
4. Processes and Opportunities
- Two key aspects of freedom:
1. Process Aspect → Institutions & governance (e.g., voting,
democracy).
2. Opportunity Aspect → Access to resources & capabilities (e.g.,
education, healthcare).
- Development must balance both:
1. Libertarians focus on legal processes but ignore inequality.
2. Consequentialists focus on opportunities but ignore personal agency.
- Sen's Approach → True development ensures both freedoms and
opportunities.
5. The Two Roles of Freedom
i. Freedom as an Evaluative Criterion: A society's success should be judged by
substantive freedoms, not just GDP.
ii. Freedom as an Instrumental Tool: More freedom → More participation →
More progress.
- Agency: People should be active participants, not passive recipients of
aid or policies.
6. Evaluative Systems: Incomes vs. Capabilities
- Income ≠ Development
- High income does not guarantee well-being (e.g., African Americans
have lower life expectancy than poorer Chinese and Indians).
- Capability Deprivation
- Lack of education, healthcare, or rights can limit opportunities even
with a high income.
7. Poverty, Inequality, & Mortality
- Poverty is more than income – It is about capability deprivation (illiteracy,
malnutrition, lack of healthcare).
8. Unemployment as Unfreedom
- Even in rich countries (e.g., in Europe), unemployment leads to social
exclusion, loss of confidence, and poor mental health.
9. Markets and Freedoms
- Markets contribute to development but must be regulated to prevent
corruption and inequality.
10. Freedom vs. Efficiency
- Markets increase prosperity, but freedom itself has intrinsic value beyond just
economic outcomes.
11. Culmination vs. Comprehensive Outcomes
- Culmination = Only the final outcome (e.g., income).
- Comprehensive = Process + Outcome (e.g., rights, choices, participation).
12. Tradition, Culture, & Democracy
- Should development replace traditions? Sen argues that people should
decide for themselves.
- Authoritarian enforcement of tradition equals = Unfreedom.
, - Education & participation ensure informed decisions about cultural change.
Key Takeaways
✅ Development is about expanding real freedoms, not just economic growth.
✅ Removing unfreedoms (poverty, lack of education, oppression) is key to
progress.
✅ Freedom is both an end and a means – it creates and sustains development.
✅ Both processes (democracy and rights) and opportunities (resources and
services) matter.
✅ Economic growth alone is insufficient – capabilities define well-being.
2. State as A Development Institution: Origin
1. Guns, Germs, and Steel: Farmer Power (Diamond, 1998)
Why Farming Provided an Advantage Over Hunter-Gathering
● More Food = More People
○ Farming produced 10-100 times more food per acre than hunting/gathering.
○ Allowed larger, denser populations, leading to military & technological
advantages.
● Role of Domesticated Animals
○ Food: Meat, milk, dairy products.
○ Farming Efficiency: Plowing with oxen/horses.
○ Fertilizer: Manure improves soil productivity.
Impact of Farming on Societal Development
● Sedentary Lifestyle → Stored surplus food → Population growth
● Surplus food → Supported specialists (rulers, soldiers, bureaucrats, artisans)
● Political & Military Power:
○ Farming societies had hierarchical structures (unlike egalitarian hunter-
gatherers).
○ Full-time armies → British Empire vs. Māori (New Zealand) – The British
had professional soldiers; the Māori could not sustain them.
Technological & Military Advantages of Farming
● Storage & Specialization → Development of writing, metal tools, and
organized trade.
● Animal Transport:
○ Horses, camels → Enabled long-distance trade & rapid military
expansion.
○ Horse-drawn warfare (chariots, cavalry) gave military superiority.
○ Spanish conquest of the Americas relied on horses.
● Germs & Epidemics
○ Farming communities lived with animals → Exposure to zoonotic
diseases (smallpox, flu, measles).
○ European colonial expansion – Diseases wiped out indigenous populations
(up to 99% mortality in Native Americans).
Why Eurasian Societies Dominated
