Instructor’s Manual
BIOCHEMISTRY
Ninth Edition
Campbell Farrell McDougal
, Contents
Chapter 1: Biochemistry and the Organization of Cells……………………………..………..1
Chapter 2: Water: The Solvent for Biochemical Reactions………………………………….11
Chapter 3: Amino Acids and Peptides………………………………………………………...23
Chapter 4: The Three-Dimensional Structure of Proteins…………………………………..34
Chapter 5: Protein Purification and Characterization Techniques…………………………44
Chapter 6: The Behavior of Proteins: Enzymes………………………………………………55
Chapter 7: The Behavior of Proteins: Enzymes, Mechanisms, and Control……………….67
Chapter 8: Lipids and Proteins Are Associated in Biological Membranes…………………77
Chapter 9: Nucleic Acids: How Structure Conveys Information……………………………86
Chapter 10: Biosynthesis of Nucleic Acids: Replication……………………………………..96
Chapter 11: Transcription of the Genetic Code: The Biosynthesis of RNA………………105
Chapter 12: Protein Synthesis: Translation of the Genetic Message………………………120
Chapter 13: Nucleic Acid Biotechnology Techniques……………………………………….132
Chapter 14: Viruses, Cancer, and Immunology…………………………………………….142
Chapter 15: The Importance of Energy Changes and Electron Transfer in Metabolism..151
Chapter 16: Carbohydrates…………………………………………………………………..159
Chapter 17: Glycolysis………………………………………………………………………...171
Chapter 18: Storage Mechanisms and Control in Carbohydrate Metabolism……………181
Chapter 19: The Citric Acid Cycle…………………………………………………………...189
Chapter 20: Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation…………………………200
Chapter 21: Lipid Metabolism……………………………………………………………….210
Chapter 22: Photosynthesis…………………………………………………………………...220
Chapter 23: The Metabolism of Nitrogen……………………………………………………228
Chapter 24: Integration of Metabolism: Cellular Signaling………………………………..239
, 1
Chapter 1: Biochemistry and the Organization of Cells
Chapter 1
Biochemistry and the Organization of Cells
SUMMARY
Section 1.1
Biochemistry describes the molecular nature of life processes. In living cells, many
chemical reactions take place simultaneously.
Cells of all types have so many fundamental features in common that it is reasonable to
say that they all had a common origin.
Section 1.2
Life is based on compounds of carbon. This is the subject matter of organic chemistry.
The basic building blocks that make up the molecules of biochemistry can be grouped
into carbohydrates, amino acids, nucleotides, and lipids.
The reactions of organic compounds are those of their functional groups, which are
specifically linked atoms that react in similar ways under many different conditions.
Section 1.3
Our solar system, including the Earth, is postulated to have been formed from chemical
elements produced by first-generation stars. The early Earth had an atmosphere that
consisted of simple chemical compounds.
The atmospheric conditions of the early Earth allowed the formation of molecules, such
as amino acids, that play a role in life processes.
Several theories describe the origin of living cells from component molecules. All require
explanations for coding and for catalytic activity, and all assign an important role to
RNA.
Section 1.4
All cells contain DNA and are separated from their environment by a cell membrane.
Prokaryotic cells do not have significant internal membranes, but the larger cells of
eukaryotes have an extensive membrane system. The internal membranes mark off the
organelles, portions of the cell with a specific function.
Prokaryotes have a nuclear region, which contains DNA, and ribosomes, the site of
protein synthesis, as their main features. They have a cell membrane, but do not have an
internal membrane system.
Three of the most important organelles in eukaryotic cells are the nucleus, the
mitochondrion, and the chloroplast. Each is separated from the rest of the cell by a double
membrane. The nucleus contains most of the DNA of the cell and is the site of RNA
synthesis. The mitochondria contain enzymes that catalyze important energy-yielding
, 2
Chapter 1: Biochemistry and the Organization of Cells
reactions. Chloroplasts, which are found in green plants and green algae, are the sites of
photosynthesis. Both mitochondria and chloroplasts contain DNA that differs from that
found in the nucleus, and both carry out transcription and protein synthesis distinct from
that directed by the nucleus.
Other organelles play specific roles. They include the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and
peroxisomes.
Section 1.5
In the five-kingdom classification scheme, prokaryotes have a kingdom to themselves
(Monera). The remaining four kingdoms—protists, fungi, plants, and animals—consist of
eukaryotes.
In the three-domain classification schemes, eukaryotes have a domain to themselves.
Two domains consist of prokaryotes. Eubacteria are the commonly encountered
prokaryotes. Archaea are organisms that live in extreme environments such as those that
were found on the early Earth.
Many theories about the rise of eukaryotes from prokaryotes focus on a possible role for
symbiosis.
The idea of endosymbiosis, in which a larger cell engulfs a smaller one, plays a large role
in scenarios for the development of organelles in eukaryotic cells.
Section 1.6
The Sun is the source of energy for all life on Earth. It provides the energy for
photosynthesis, which produces carbohydrates as well as oxygen.
Carbohydrates can be processed in chemical reactions that release energy.
Reactions that release energy are favored and thus are likely to occur. Thermodynamics is
the branch of science that predicts the likelihood of reactions.
A spontaneous reaction is one that will take place without outside intervention. This point
does not specify reaction rate. Some spontaneous processes can take a long time to occur.
The change in free energy (∆G) that accompanies a reaction determines whether that
reaction is spontaneous at a given temperature and pressure.
A negative free energy change (∆G<0) is characteristic of a spontaneous reaction. A
positive free energy change (∆G>0) indicates that the reaction is not spontaneous, but the
reverse process is spontaneous. When the free energy change is zero (∆G = 0), the
reaction is at equilibrium.
Living things are ordered assemblies of molecules. They represent a local decrease in
entropy. Because the entropy of the universe increases in spontaneous processes, this
local decrease in entropy is offset by a larger increase in the entropy of the surroundings.
There is an increase in total entropy.
BIOCHEMISTRY
Ninth Edition
Campbell Farrell McDougal
, Contents
Chapter 1: Biochemistry and the Organization of Cells……………………………..………..1
Chapter 2: Water: The Solvent for Biochemical Reactions………………………………….11
Chapter 3: Amino Acids and Peptides………………………………………………………...23
Chapter 4: The Three-Dimensional Structure of Proteins…………………………………..34
Chapter 5: Protein Purification and Characterization Techniques…………………………44
Chapter 6: The Behavior of Proteins: Enzymes………………………………………………55
Chapter 7: The Behavior of Proteins: Enzymes, Mechanisms, and Control……………….67
Chapter 8: Lipids and Proteins Are Associated in Biological Membranes…………………77
Chapter 9: Nucleic Acids: How Structure Conveys Information……………………………86
Chapter 10: Biosynthesis of Nucleic Acids: Replication……………………………………..96
Chapter 11: Transcription of the Genetic Code: The Biosynthesis of RNA………………105
Chapter 12: Protein Synthesis: Translation of the Genetic Message………………………120
Chapter 13: Nucleic Acid Biotechnology Techniques……………………………………….132
Chapter 14: Viruses, Cancer, and Immunology…………………………………………….142
Chapter 15: The Importance of Energy Changes and Electron Transfer in Metabolism..151
Chapter 16: Carbohydrates…………………………………………………………………..159
Chapter 17: Glycolysis………………………………………………………………………...171
Chapter 18: Storage Mechanisms and Control in Carbohydrate Metabolism……………181
Chapter 19: The Citric Acid Cycle…………………………………………………………...189
Chapter 20: Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation…………………………200
Chapter 21: Lipid Metabolism……………………………………………………………….210
Chapter 22: Photosynthesis…………………………………………………………………...220
Chapter 23: The Metabolism of Nitrogen……………………………………………………228
Chapter 24: Integration of Metabolism: Cellular Signaling………………………………..239
, 1
Chapter 1: Biochemistry and the Organization of Cells
Chapter 1
Biochemistry and the Organization of Cells
SUMMARY
Section 1.1
Biochemistry describes the molecular nature of life processes. In living cells, many
chemical reactions take place simultaneously.
Cells of all types have so many fundamental features in common that it is reasonable to
say that they all had a common origin.
Section 1.2
Life is based on compounds of carbon. This is the subject matter of organic chemistry.
The basic building blocks that make up the molecules of biochemistry can be grouped
into carbohydrates, amino acids, nucleotides, and lipids.
The reactions of organic compounds are those of their functional groups, which are
specifically linked atoms that react in similar ways under many different conditions.
Section 1.3
Our solar system, including the Earth, is postulated to have been formed from chemical
elements produced by first-generation stars. The early Earth had an atmosphere that
consisted of simple chemical compounds.
The atmospheric conditions of the early Earth allowed the formation of molecules, such
as amino acids, that play a role in life processes.
Several theories describe the origin of living cells from component molecules. All require
explanations for coding and for catalytic activity, and all assign an important role to
RNA.
Section 1.4
All cells contain DNA and are separated from their environment by a cell membrane.
Prokaryotic cells do not have significant internal membranes, but the larger cells of
eukaryotes have an extensive membrane system. The internal membranes mark off the
organelles, portions of the cell with a specific function.
Prokaryotes have a nuclear region, which contains DNA, and ribosomes, the site of
protein synthesis, as their main features. They have a cell membrane, but do not have an
internal membrane system.
Three of the most important organelles in eukaryotic cells are the nucleus, the
mitochondrion, and the chloroplast. Each is separated from the rest of the cell by a double
membrane. The nucleus contains most of the DNA of the cell and is the site of RNA
synthesis. The mitochondria contain enzymes that catalyze important energy-yielding
, 2
Chapter 1: Biochemistry and the Organization of Cells
reactions. Chloroplasts, which are found in green plants and green algae, are the sites of
photosynthesis. Both mitochondria and chloroplasts contain DNA that differs from that
found in the nucleus, and both carry out transcription and protein synthesis distinct from
that directed by the nucleus.
Other organelles play specific roles. They include the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and
peroxisomes.
Section 1.5
In the five-kingdom classification scheme, prokaryotes have a kingdom to themselves
(Monera). The remaining four kingdoms—protists, fungi, plants, and animals—consist of
eukaryotes.
In the three-domain classification schemes, eukaryotes have a domain to themselves.
Two domains consist of prokaryotes. Eubacteria are the commonly encountered
prokaryotes. Archaea are organisms that live in extreme environments such as those that
were found on the early Earth.
Many theories about the rise of eukaryotes from prokaryotes focus on a possible role for
symbiosis.
The idea of endosymbiosis, in which a larger cell engulfs a smaller one, plays a large role
in scenarios for the development of organelles in eukaryotic cells.
Section 1.6
The Sun is the source of energy for all life on Earth. It provides the energy for
photosynthesis, which produces carbohydrates as well as oxygen.
Carbohydrates can be processed in chemical reactions that release energy.
Reactions that release energy are favored and thus are likely to occur. Thermodynamics is
the branch of science that predicts the likelihood of reactions.
A spontaneous reaction is one that will take place without outside intervention. This point
does not specify reaction rate. Some spontaneous processes can take a long time to occur.
The change in free energy (∆G) that accompanies a reaction determines whether that
reaction is spontaneous at a given temperature and pressure.
A negative free energy change (∆G<0) is characteristic of a spontaneous reaction. A
positive free energy change (∆G>0) indicates that the reaction is not spontaneous, but the
reverse process is spontaneous. When the free energy change is zero (∆G = 0), the
reaction is at equilibrium.
Living things are ordered assemblies of molecules. They represent a local decrease in
entropy. Because the entropy of the universe increases in spontaneous processes, this
local decrease in entropy is offset by a larger increase in the entropy of the surroundings.
There is an increase in total entropy.
