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Summary Relationships Psychology A Level
- Grado
- Institución
full notes for relationships unit aqa psychology
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Topic Red Amber GreenEvolutionary Explanation for partner preference,
including sexual selection and human reproductive
behaviour.
Factors affecting attraction in romantic relationships
Self-disclosure
Physical attractiveness and the matching hypothesis
Filter theory, including social demography, similarity
in attitudes and complementarity
Theories of Romantic Relationships
Social Exchange Theory
Equity Theory
Rusbult’s investment model of commitment,
satisfaction, comparison with alternatives and
investment
Duck’s phase model of relationship breakdown:
intra-psychic, dyadic, social and grave dressing
phase
Virtual Relationships in Social Media
Self-disclosure in virtual relationships
Effects of absence of gating on the nature of virtual
relationships
Parasocial Relationships
Levels of Parasocial relationships
Absorption Addiction model
Attachment Theory
, Evolutionary Explanation for Partner Preferences
(Sexual Selection & Human Reproductive Behaviour)
Sexual selection is an evolutionary explanation of partner preference. This suggests that any
attribute or behaviour that increases reproductive success are passed on and may become
exaggerated over succeeding generations of offspring.
Anisogamy refers to the difference male and female sex cells (gametes) which give rise to
different mating strategies. Male gametes (sperm) are extremely small, highly mobile, created
continuously in vast numbers to old age and so can fertilise females at relatively little cost. On
the other hand, female gametes (eggs) are relatively large, static and produced at intervals for a
limited number of fertile years and require a huge investment. A consequence of anisogamy for
mate selection is that there is no shortage of fertile males, but fertile females are a rare
‘resource. It’s also important in partner preference because it gives rise to 2 different mating
strategies, which in turn means 2 types of sexual selection.
Inter-sexual selection:
This is where the member of one sex have preferences for characteristics of members of the
opposite sex. This is the preferred mating strategy of the female – ‘quality over quantity’.
With females gametes being rarer than males, and the greater compulso ry investment
females must make to reproduce before, during and after birth (e.g. due to pregnancy, breast
feeding etc.) the consequences of a bad mate choice is more serious than males. So it pays for
her to be especially choosy. Therefore the optimum mating strategy is to select a genetically fit
partner who is able and willing to provide resources. This leaves males competing for the
opportunity to mate with the fertile female.
The female preference for a genetically ‘fit’ male ensures that desirable characteristics (e.g.
height) are inherited by male offspring, increasing the likelihood that successive generations of
females will mate with her offspring. This is known as the sexy sons hypothesis.
Intra-sexual selection:
This is the preferred mating strategy of males- ‘quantity over quality’. It means that males
compete with each other to be able to mate with a female. The winner of the competition
reproduces and gets to pass on to his offspring the characteristics that contributed to his
victory. It is this strategy that gives rise to physical and psychological differences between males
and females in humans (dimorphism). E.g. they are physically larger as it helps in any physical
competition to acquire a female and more controversially act aggressively to protect ‘their’
female from competing males.
Anisogamy dictates male’s optimum reproductive strategy is to mate with as many fertile
females as possible, because the minimal energy and lack of post-coital responsibility the male
carries. The behavioural consequence of this competition for fertile mates is a distinct
preference for youth and a sensitivity to indicators of youth (e.g. certain facial features) as well
as fertility (e.g. body shape)
, Key Research into Evolutionary Explanation of Partner Preference/Sexual Selection
Buss (1989):
Aim/Procedure: Buss investigated what males and females looked for in a long-term partner.
They asked over 10,000 people from 37 different cultures. Participants were asked to rate 18
characteristics (e.g. physical attractiveness and good financial prospects) on how important
they would be in choosing a mate. A four point scale was used ranging from 3 (indispensable) to
0 (irrelevant).
Findings/Conclusion:
They found that women more than men desired mates who were ‘good financial prospects’,
which implied that they wanted a man with resources, or qualities such as ambition and
industriousness. Whereas, men placed more importance on physical attractiveness as this was a
cue to a woman’s health and therefore her fertility and reproductive value. In addition to this,
men wanted mates who were younger than them- another indication of fertility.
Both sexes wanted mates who were intelligent (linked to the skill of parenting) and kind (linked
to interest in long-term relationship).
Evaluation of Evolutionary Explanation
+ Support for intersexual selection by Clark and Hatfield (1989). They found that when
strangers on a college campus were approached by a male or female experimenter saying ‘Hi,
I’ve noticed you around campus and I find you very attractive’, 0% females agreed to have sex
with them, compared with 75% males. This supports evolutionary theory because it suggests
that females are choosier than males when it comes to selecting sexual partners and that males
have evolved a different strategy to ensure reproductive success.
+ Buss supports the preference related to anisogamy. A survey of 10,000 adults in 33 countries
was carried out related attributes that are important for partner preference. They found that
females placed greater value on resource-related characteristics such as good financial aspects,
ambition etc. than male. Whereas males valued on youth and fertility, as these were indicators
of reproductive capacity more than women did. This suggests that there are sex differences in
mate strategies due to anisogamy. Furthermore they support predictions made about partner
preference by sexual selection theory.
+ A strength of the evolutionary explanation is that it explains human behaviours. For example
females often alter their appearance through the use of make-up and cosmetic surgery and lie
about their age in order to appear younger and more fertile. Similarly males use deceit to
exaggerate their resource capability and fake love in order to persuade females to mate with
them. This supports the idea of males and females using different strategies to maximise
reproductive potential.
+ There is supporting research for the evolutionary explanation for partner preference. Singh
studied this in terms of waist-hip ration (WHR). They found that male preference is not female
body size as such, but the ratio of waist to hip ratio. Up to a point males generally find any hip
and waist sizes are attractive as long as the ratio of one to the other is about 0.7. This
combination of wider hips and narrower waist is attractive because it is an ‘honest signal’ that
the woman is fertile but not pregnant and therefore increasing their chances of reproductive
success. This suggests males are sensitive to indicators of female fertility because it facilitates
their optimum mating strategy (intra-sexual selection).
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