ALL PSYCHOLOGY NOTES (CH 1-9, 12, 14, 15), All You need for easy revision. Rated A

ALL PSYCHOLOGY NOTES (CH 1-9, 12, 14, 15), All You need for easy revision. Rated A Document Content and Description Below ALL PSYCHOLOGY NOTES (CH 1-9, 12, 14, 15), All You need for easy revision. Rated A CHAPTER GUIDE: CH 1: 77 terms - CARDS 3-79 CH 2: 78 terms - CARDS 80-158 CH 3: 92 terms - CARDS 159-251 CH 4 : 105 terms - CARDS 252-357 CH 5: 103 terms - CARDS 358-461 CH 6: 114 terms - CARDS 462-576 CH 7: 102 terms - CARDS 577-679 CH 8: 110 terms - CARDS 680-790 CH 9: 70 terms - CARDS 791-861 CH 12: 102 terms - CARDS 862-964 CH 14: 94 terms - CARDS 965-1059 CH 15: 25 terms - CARDS - Chapter 1: Science of Psychology Chapter 2: Biological Perspective Chapter 3: Sensation and Perception Chapter 4: Consciousness Chapter 5: Learning Chapter 6: Memory Chapter 7: Cognition Chapter 8: Development Chapter 9: Motivation and Emotion Chapter 12: Social Psychology Chapter 14: Psychological Disorders Chapter 15: Psychological Therapies CHAPTER 1: Science of Psychology - CARDS 2-79 What is Psychology? - The scientific study of behavior and mental processes. -- behavior: any action -- metal processes: perceptions, thoughts, feelings (latent constructs) -- scientific Goals of Psychology - 1. Describe (what is happening?) 2. Explain (why is it happening?) 3. Predict (when will i happen again?) 4. Control (how can it be changed?) Wilheim Wundt - "Father of Psychology" - Some work involved *objective introspection* • 1. First attempt to bring objectivity/measurement in psychology • 2. Founded the 1st experimental psychology laboratory. objective introspection - Wundt -- process of objectively examining and measuring one's own thoughts and mental activities EX: place object, like rock, in student's hand and have student explain everything he was feeling from holding the rock -- all sensations by the rock Edward Titchener - • Student of Wundt, translated many of Wundt's works into English • *Structuralism* - Study consciousness by trying to understand its smallest, most basic elements • Introspection of thoughts as well as physical objects Structuralism - Titchener -- expanded on Wundt's original ideas -- focus of the study was the structure of the mind William James - • Functionalism: Fuctionalism - William James -- Study the function of consciousness‐how the mind allows people to work, play, adapt to new circumstances Max Wertheimer - Gestalt Psychology, or how we experience the world - "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts." Gestalt Psychology - Wertheimer -- How we experience the world as whole Sigmund Freud - Worked with patients whose complaints had no identifiable physical cause • Focused on the role of the unconscious - Where unwanted urges and desires are pushed towards • *Psychoanalysis*: therapy based on Freud's ideas - Focus on early childhood development; psychosexual stages - Dream interpretation: "The interpretation of dreams is the royal road to a knowledge of the unconscious activities of the mind." psychoanalysis - Freud -- theory based on Freud's ideas that there is an unconscious (unaware) mind into which we push/repress all threatening urges or desires, which cause nervous disorders [focuses on early childhood experiences] John Watson - *Behaviorism* or study of the observable behavior -- performed the "Little Albert" study trying to create a phobia using the classic conditioning, a technique discovered by Pavlov Behaviorism - Watson -- focused on the study of observable behavior Pavlov - Interested in reflexes • Discovered that reflexes could be learned/conditioned aka *conditioning* EX: observing dogs & metronome - At first, Pavlov turned metronome on, feed dogs, caused saliva (natural response) - Then, metronome caused saliva before being feed, a learned reflexive response (aka conditioning) conditioning - Pavlov -- the idea that reflexive responses can be learned or "conditioned" John Watson: Little Albert study - Freud: phobias are the result of unconscious conflicts -- Watson believed he could create a phobia using the conditioning technique discovered by Pavlov -- Took baby, "Little Albert," and taught him to fear a rat by making loud, scary noises every time a rat appeared until just seeing the rat made the baby cry/fearful 7 Modern Perspectives of Pyschology - • Psychodynamic • Behavioral • Humanistic • Cognitive • Sociocultural • Bio-psychological Perspective • Evolutionary Perspective Psychodynamic Perspective - Modern version of psychoanalysis - more focused on the development of a sense of self and the discovery of other motivations behind a person's behavior. - Psychodynamic psychotherapy - Attachment theory: type of bond formed between caregiver and an infant Behavioral Perspective - -- After a scandal, Watson left his academic job and went into advertising. -- BF Skinner, a famous behaviorist who continued and expanded upon his work in classical conditioning • How to manipulate voluntary behavior by changing the consequences of behavior - Operant conditioning Operant conditioning - B.F. Skinner -- developed theory to explain how voluntary behavior is learned -- behavioral responses followed by pleasurable consequences are strengthened or reinforced EX: crying infant gets mother's attention, infant with cry for attention again in the future Humanistic Perspective - Emphasis in conscious and immediate experiences and the empowerment of the individual to become the best he/she can be, achieve one's full potential (self‐actualization) - Humanists held the view that people have self-actualization & free will: the freedom to choose/shape their own destiny. - Client‐centered therapy Cognitive Perspective - Grew in part out of gestalt psychology • How people think, remember, and store information - Language, problem solving, intelligence, decision making... • Cognitive neuroscience: brain and cognitive processing Sociocultural Perspective - Combines social and cultural psychology - Social psychology: study of groups, relationships, social influences on behavior - Cultural psychology: study of cultural values and norms, or standards of behavior -- Cross‐cultural studies: contrast/comparisons of a behavior/ issue studied in at least two or more cultures Biopsychological Perspective - Mental processes can be explained by the events in the body including interaction with biological factors like genes, or hormones. (or heredity, brain chemicals, etc) -- research includes sleep, emotions, aggression, sexual behavior, learning, and memory, plus disorders Evolutionary Perspective - Grew in part out of functionalism • Argues that human behavior is a result of psychological adaptations that help people successfully function and survive -- focuses on the biological gases for universal mental characteristics that all humans share Types of Psychological Professionals - Psychologists Therapy Psychiatrists Psychologists - • Doctoral degree & specialized training in one or more subfield of psychology • Clinical, counseling, developmental, cognitive, social, biological, personality • Some psychologists do basic research; others do applied research; some do both. Basic vs Applied research - • Basic research -- research for the sake of gaining scientific knowledge EX: How do patients with Alzheimer's disease experience emotion? • Applied research -- research aimed at answering real-world, practical problems EX: How can we use the intact emotional responses of some Alzheimer's patients to improve their quality of life? Therapy - • Some psychologists (e.g., school, counseling, clinical) are trained in psychological interventions/therapy. • Some other professions also do psychotherapy, sometimes from specific perspectives: EX: Social workers, marriage and family therapists • Some of these professions require a master's degree (vs. a doctoral degree). • With a few exceptions, psychologists are not allowed to prescribe medication ("pharmacotherapy"). Psychiatrists - • Medical degree/medical specialty •Psychiatrists go to medical school and then specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders • Often uses medication as treatment -- Psychiatric Social Worker: trained in the area of social work and usually possesses a master's degree in that discipline (focus more on environmental conditions that have impacted mental disorders, like poverty, overcrowding, stress, and drug abuse) Confirmation Bias - Tendency to notice, seek out, and interpret information in a way consistent with your own prior beliefs Scientific Method - - a system for reducing bias and error in the measurement of data - used in psychology to accomplish the goals of description, explanation, prediction, and control 1. Perceiving a Question 2. Forming a Hypothesis 3. Testing the Hypothesis 4. Drawing Conclusion 5. Reporting Results Research Methods of Psychology - descriptive methods (4) correlations experiments Descriptive Methods - naturalistic observation laboratory observation case study surveys Naturalistic Observation (Descriptive Method) Advantage: Limitations & Ways to Minimize: - • Watching animals or humans behave in their normal environment Advantage: realistic picture of behavior Limitations and Ways of Minimizing: ◦ Observer effect [behave different knowing being observed] -- Participant observation (observer part of the observed group, reduces observer effect) ◦ Observer bias [see what expected to see] -- Blind observers (don't know research question, reduces observer bias) ◦ Each naturalistic setting is unique, and observations may not hold. Observer effect - tendency of people or animals to behave differently from normal when they know they are being observed. Participant observation - a naturalistic observation in which the observer becomes a participant in the group being observed (to reduce observer effect) Observer bias - tendency of observers to see what they expect to see Blind observers - people who do not know what the research question is (to reduce observer bias) Laboratory Observation (Descriptive Method) Advantages: Limitations: - •Watching animals or humans behave in a laboratory setting Advantages: ◦ Control over environment ◦ Allows use of specialized equipment Limitations: ◦ Artificial situation that may result in artificial behavior ◦ Can be difficult to generalize findings to "real world" situations Case Study (Descriptive Method) Advantage: Limitation: - • Study of one individual in great detail Advantage: ◦ Tremendous amount of detail ◦ Rich source for hypothesis generation Limitation: ◦ Findings may not generalize to others Survey (Descriptive Method) - -- A technique for ascertaining the self‐reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people. Advantages: • Data from large numbers of people • Study covert behaviors (get private information) Limitations: • People are not always accurate •Small variations in wording used or order of questions can affect outcomes •Researchers have to ensure representative sample if interested in generalizing findings to a certain population, aka *sampling* Explain significant of the Phineas Gage story - Famous *case study* of Phineas Gage, who accidentally, had a large metal rod driven through his head and suffered a major personality change as a result -- Example of case study being the best research method in some situations by being the only way to get certain kinds of information Sampling - • Population: entire group of people or animals the researchers is interested in • Representative sample: randomly selected sample of subjects for a larger population EX: Wanting to survey US college freshmen about politics, you select a randomly representative sample by selecting a certain # of college freshmen from many different colleges in US Correlation - A measure of the relationship between two variables (examining relationships) Variable - anything that can change or vary What does the correlation coefficient represent? - • Measures of two variables go into a mathematical formula and produce a correlation coefficient (r), which represents two things: • the direction of the relationship (sign) • the strength of the relationship (number) • Range: ‐1 to +1 -- The closer to 1 OR ‐1 the stronger the relationship. -- The closer to 0 the weaker the relationship • Knowing the value of one variable allows researchers to predict the value of the other variable. Correlation: Direction - • Positive correlation: variables are related in the same direction -- As one increases, the other increases; as one decreases, the other decreases. • Negative correlation: variables are related in opposite direction -- As one increases, the other decreases. Correlation: Size - • A clustered, close picture is correlations of -.04 showing a weak correlation • A scattered cluster with a best fit line sloping downward is correlation of -.37 showing a negative correlation • A scattered cluster with best fit line sloping upward is a correlation of .61 showing a positive correlation Correlation and Causation - • Correlation does not prove causation! EX: ice cream sales and drowning -- Since ice cream sales go up and drowning also go up, they have a positive correlation BUT this doesn't prove ice cream is causing the drownings. -- If variables are causally related, a correlation won't tell you which variable is the cause and which is the effect. EX: self‐esteem and school performance Experiments - A researcher manipulates one variable (IV) and measures the effect of the manipulation on another (DV). Independent Variable - the variable in an experiment that is manipulated by experimenter Dependent Variable - the variable in an experiment that represents the measurable response or behavior of the subjects in the experiment Operational Definition - • Definition of a variable of interest that allows it to be directly measured • Specifically naming the operations (steps/procedures) that the experimenter must use to control or measure the variables in the experiment EX: Intelligence, Depression, Aggression EX: measuring aggressive behavior in children after violent cartoons, would do by making a checklist such as hitting, pushing, etc. Experimental Group - subjects in an experiment who are subjected to the IV Control Group - Subjects in an experiment who are not subjected to the IV and who may receive a placebo treatment (controls for some confounding variables) Random Assignment - randomly assigning participants to experimental or control group -- minimizes pre‐existing differences between the two groups -- gives each study participant an equal chance of being in the treatment or the control group Potential issues with Experiments - confounds demand characteristics placebo effect experimenter effect Confounds (Way to Minimize) - (aka third variables) are variables that the researcher failed to control, or eliminate, damaging the internal validity of an experiment. -- extraneous variable that affects the variables you are interested in studying (EX: already aggressive background kids in the violent TV experiment) • Experimental and control groups • Random assignment Demand Characteristics (Way to Minimize) - participants change their behavior based on what they perceive the experiment to be about • Deception Placebo Effect (Way to Minimize) - expectations of participants can influence their behavior • Experimental and control groups • Single blind study Experimenter Effect (Way to Minimize) - experimenter's expectations can unintentionally influence the results of a study • Double blind study Single Blind Study vs Double Blind Study - Single Blind Study -- participants are blind to the treatment they receive Double Blind Study -- both participants and person measuring the dependent variable are blind to who got what (blind of whose experimental or control) Quasi-Experiment Designs - Not considered true experiments because of the inability to randomly assign participants to the experimental and control groups EX: Effect of alcohol exposure in utero on children's school performance; Schizophrenia and cognitive performance Important Note: A single study is limited in the information it provides. It is needed for what 2 studies: - • Need for replication studies • Need for studies testing alternate hypotheses Meta‐analysis - special type of quantitative review of a research literature ****** Psychological Science at Work: Mozart Effect - • Numerous attempts at replicating the effect, often unsuccessful • Attempts to look at the duration of the effect • Attempts looking at the effect of other types of music • -- Arousal and pleasantness? Research Ethics - autonomy beneficence justice Autonomy - allow people to make their own decisions • Informed consent -- Risks and benefits of participation • Deception is justified -- By debriefing -- telling participants at end why deception was important to study • Right to withdraw participation at anytime Beneficence - Maximize benefits while minimizing harm • Monitor and intervene if something bad occurs • Keep a participant's data confidential Justice - fair treatment • Selection of research participants Animal Research - Controversial Reasons: • Greater control • Ability to perform some research it would not be ethical to conduct in humans Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) First woman to to receive Ph.D in Psychology - Margaret F. Washburn, The Animal Mind Critical Thinking (4) - Critical Thinking 1. There are very few "truths" that don't need to be subjected to testing. 2. All evidence is not equal in quality. 3. Just because someone is considered to be an authority does not make everything that person claims automatically true. 4. Critical thinking requires an open mind. Find the error in reasoning • A famous Nobel Prize-winning scientist announces that magnets can relieve back pain when rubbed on a person's back. He found 10 people with back pain and gave each of them magnet therapy. After the therapy, most of the people told him that their back pain was reduced. He concluded that magnets relieve back pain. - ? ? ? Find the error in reasoning • A teacher feels better when wearing bright colors. She hypothesizes that wearing brightly colored clothing can also improve the mood of people around her. She tests this using her students. She wears dull clothing to her morning class of 45 students and brightly colored clothing to her afternoon class of 45 students. She reports that her afternoon class seemed more alert and smiled more. She concludes that wearing bright colors improves other peoples' moods. - ? ? ? CHAPTER 2: Biological Perspective - CARDS 80-158 biological psychology (or behavioral neuroscience) - branch of neuroscience that focuses on the biological bases of psychological processes, behavior, and learning Central Nervous System (CNS) - Brain and Spinal Chord -- Brain: interprets and stores information and sends orders to muscles, glands, and organs -- Spinal Cord: pathway connecting the brain and the peripheral nervous system Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - Peripheral nerves (aspects of nervous system that are not ESSENTIAL; organs) -- transmits information to and from the central nervous system Peripheral Nervous System consists of 2 parts: - autonomic nervous system -- automatically regulates glands, internal organs and blood vessels, pupil dilation, digestion, and blood pressure somatic nervous system -- carries sensory information and controls movement of the skeletal muscles The autonomic nervous system has 2 divisions: - parasympathetic division -- maintains body functions under ordinary conditions; saves energy sympathetic division -- prepares the body to react and expend energy in times of stress Gray Matter - MOSTLY neurons Neurons - MOSTLY Gray matter specialized cells that Receives & Sends messages White Matter - Glia Glia - o White Matter (More FATTY cells) o 90% of cells in nervous system o Supportive role: nutrients, repair damage, form myelin, get rid of waste... Neuron Parts - Soma - cell ody Dendrite - branching arms (like a tree) receive info/messages from other cells/dendrites Axon - Sends information/passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles or glands -- some are Myelinated (myelin sheath) glial cells, which covers the axon and helps to increase speed of transmission of neural impulses Terminal Buttons - where the axon ends; form connections/junctions with other neurons/cells ? Axon Hillock - ? Base of the axon, where axon connects with cell body. ? Acts as a trigger. Action Potential - -- electrical signal traveling down the axon • occur in an ALL-OR-NOTHING fashion! *** EX: How does the strength of the message get coded (e.g., loud sounds vs. soft sounds)? {CHART} • Fast versus Slow: Myelination • Oligodendrocytes: CNS • Schwann cells: PNS ? brief permeability of sodium ions (IN) and potassium ions (OUT) Oligodendrocytes - Central NS Schwan Cells - Peripheral NS Synapse - - (or synaptic gap) in the tiny gap between the tip of the axon of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron Neurotransmitter - Neurotransmitters (chemicals) released from the sending neuron, travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing it. -- They can have an excitatory or inhibitory effect. excitatory effect VS inhibitory effect - excitatory effect (turns cells on) inhibitory effect (turns cells off) Neurotransmitter: Glutamate - MAJOR excitatory neurotransmitter (turns cells on) -- involved ink earning, memory formation, nervous system development, and synaptic plasticity Neurotransmitter: GABA - MAJOR inhibitory neurotransmitter (turns cells off) -- involved in sleep and inhibits movement Neurotransmitter: Serotonin - excitatory or inhibitory •Mood, hunger, sleep, and anxiety Neurotransmitter: Acetylcholine - excitatory or inhibitory •Responsible for muscle movement/contractions •Learning new memory, arousal, attention Neurotransmitter: Dopamine - excitatory or inhibitory •Movements, sensations of pleasure Neurotransmitter: Norepinephrine - mainly excitatory -- involved in arousal and mood Neurotransmitter: Neuropeptides - inhibitory neural regulators -- EX: Endorphins -- released during experience of pain Cleaning Synapse - •Neurotransmitters in the synapse are either... (a) reabsorbed into the sending neurons through reuptake (b) diffuse or (c) are broken down by enzymes. These process applies brakes on neurotransmitter action. -- This process applies brakes on neurotransmitter action Drugs are categorized under 2 types - agonist antagonist Agonist - increases the original message of the neurotransmitter was supposed to send Antagonist - blocks original message that neurotransmitter was supposed to send -- Some drugs act by affecting the amount of neurotransmitter available at the synapse Spinal Chord Reflect (3) EX: touching fire - Spinal cord; reflex arc neurons: (fire stimulates pain receptors/sensory neurons) 1. [Afferent] Sensory Neurons - from senses to spinal chord (excite interneurons) [access spinal cord] 2. Interneurons - connect afferent to efferent (excite motor neurons) 3. [Efferent] Motor Neurons - from spinal chord to muscles (motor nerves exit spinal cord, excite muscles, and initiate movement) [exit spinal cord] -- This is why a reflex is so fast ! neuroplasticity - ability to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in the brain in response to experience and even trauma The Peripheral Nervous System - 1) Autonomic Nervous System a. parasympathetic divison b. sympathetic division 2) Somatic Nervous System Somatic Nervous System - •Sensation •Voluntary Muscle movement OR -- sensory pathway: comprises all nerves carrying messages from the senses to the Central NS, containing afferent neurons -- motor pathway: all nerves carrying messages from the Central NS to the voluntary, skeletal smiles of the body, containing efferent neurons Autonomic Nervous System - •Part of the Peripheral N.S. that controls the involuntary muscle, organs, glands -our automatic functions -- has 2 divisions Two divisions of autonomic nervous system, a subfield of the Peripheral NS: Sympathetic division _______ Parasympathetic division ________ - Sympathetic: Arouses (FIGHT-or-FLIGHT) -- located in middle of spinal column Parasympathetic: "Calms" (REST-and-DIGEST) -- located at the top and bottom of the spinal column, on either side of the sympathetic division neurons Endocrine System - •The body's "slow" chemical communication system •Communication carried out by hormones Basic Functions of Endocrine - Putitary Gland - "Master gland", responsible for growth and control of other glands -- secretes many different hormones, some of which affect other glands Thyroid Gland - affects metabolism Parathyroid Gland - Calcium regulation in the blood Adrenal Gland - inner part, called the medulla, triggers fight-or-flight response, engaged under stress or danger Pancreas - regulates blood sugar Testes and Ovaries - secret sex hormones such as testosterone or estrogen Compare and contrast the endocrine system and the nervous system - Similarity: Both produce molecules that act elsewhere in the body Endocrine: -- use hormones -- take longer to act via the blood stream -- effects last longer Nervous: -- use neurotransmitters -- electrical current takes fractions of a second -- effects are more transient (shorter) Brain Stem - •Part of Central NS that connect the cerebral Consists of: -- medulla -- pons -- reticular formation Medulla - most inferior; heartbeat, breathing, swallowing; basic functions Pons - Messages between the cerebellum and the cortex, sleep, dreaming Reticular - formation, alertness, attention, activation system Midbrain - integrates sensory processes, such as vision and hearing (one area is involved in dopamine synthesis) -- segment of brainstem that lies between the hindbrain and the forebrain Cerebellum - •Control of involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement; voluntary movements that happen in rapid succession. ? Ataxia - ? damage to the cerebellum that henders precise motor movement Limbic System (HOME) - •Homeostasis (keeps things functioning in normal range e.g. temperature) •Olfaction - smell •Memory •Emotion Thalmus - a round structure in the center of the brain that acts as the brain's sensory switchboard, relaying incoming sensory information to the appropriate area. -- EXCEPT smell! Hypothalmus - helps direct several maintenance activities like thirst, hunger, body temperature, sleeping and wakin, sexual behavior. Controls pituitary gland -- lies below (hypo) the thalamus Hippocampus - plays vital role in learning and memory (for facts/knowledge) •Acetylcholine Amygdala - two almond shaped neural clusters linked to emotion, especially fear. Cortex - Outermost covering of the brain, densely packed neurons, responsible for higher thought process and interpretation of sensory input Cortilization - wrinkling of the cortex Allows a much larger are of cortical cells to exist in the small space inside the skull. Main Lobes of the Brain - Frontal Lobe (front) Parietal Lobe (middle top) Occipital Lobe (middle bottom) Temporal Lobe (back) [then cerebellum underneath, with brain stem beneath that] Frontal - Responsible for higher(complex) mental processes and decision making. Also, contains the motor cortex - generation *** Phineas Gage Parietal - contain the somatosensory cortex: area of neurons running down the front of the parietal lobes; responsible for processing information from the skin and internal body receptors for touch, temperature, body position Temporal - contains -- primary auditory cortex - processes auditory info from the ears -- Auditory association cortex - interprets or makes sense of auditory information -- Some parts responsible for aspects of language Occipital - Contain: Primary Visual Cortex - processes visual information from the eyes Visual association cortex - interprets or makes sense of visual information Association Cortices - Areas within the different lobes that integrate different types on information [EX of damage to an association cortex: Prosopagnosia] Cerebral Hemisphere - The two sections of the cortex on the left and right sides of the brain RECALL: Left visual info is processed in the right side of the brain and vice versa ! Corpus Callosum - thick bundle of neurons that connect the right and left cerebral hemispheres Specialization of the Two Hemispheres - LEFT: -- controls right hand -- spoken language -- written language -- mathematical calculations -- logical thought processes -- analysis of detail -- reading RIGHT: -- controls left hand -- nonverbal -- visual-spatial perception -- music and artistic processing -- emotional thought and recognition -- processes the whole -- pattern recognition -- facial recognition Broca's area - area in the left frontal lobe devoted to production of speech allowing person to speak smoothly/fluently -- Broca's aphasia: inability to use or understand written or spoken language Wernicke's area - area in the left frontal lobe involved in understanding the meaning of words -- Wernicke's aphasia: can speak fluently and pronounce words, but words would be wrong entirely Lesion Studies - only used in animal research -- electrical current strong enough to kill of the target neurons sent through the tip of a wire which is inserted into the brain Brain Stimulation - -- Deep brain stimulation (DBS): procedure where neurosurgeons place electrodes in specific deep-brain areas then route wires to a pacemaker-like device called impulse generator that is surgically implanted under the collarbone -- Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS): magnetic pulses are applied to the cortex using special copper wire coils that are positioned over the head Mapping Brain Structure - -- Computed Tomography (CT): involves mapping "slices" of the brain by computer -- Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): placed inside machine that generates a powerful magnetic field to align hydrogen atoms in the brain tissues (which normally are spinning randomly) -- Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI): uses MRI technology to provide a way to measure connectivity in the brain by imaging these white matter tracts Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) Grey Matter: White Matter: - Grey Matter: cell bodies & unmyelinated -- outer areas White Matter: myelinated axons -- fiber tracts thats myelinated responsible for lighter color Mapping Function - Trade Off (Brain activity during a task) - timing - localization Magnetoencephalography (MEG): uses devices that are very sensitive to magnetic fields called superconducting quantum interference devices Electroencephalogram (EEG): fairly harmless way to study activity of the living brain to record electrical activity of the cortex just below the skull - Event Related Potential (ERP): results in the measurement of the response of the brain related to the stimulus event itself Positron Emission Tomography (PET): person is injected with a radioactive glucose Functional Magnetic resonance Imaging (fMRI): only shows structure, in which the computer tracks changes in the oxygen levels of the blood information about where oxygen is being used in the brain over an image of the brain's structure Which mapping method would be best? 1) Most interested in measuring a fast response? 2) Most interested in knowing exactly where the signal is coming from? - 1) fast response -- EEG 2) where signal coming from -- fMRI CHAPTER 3: Sensation and Perception - CARDS 159-251 Sensation - Occurs when special receptors in the sense organs are activated, allowing various forms of outside stimuli to become neural signals in the brain (detect physical energy, aka stimuli, from the environment and convert it into neural signals) Perception - -- when we give meaning or organize, select and interpret our sensations (so we can identify different threshold of perception) Transduction - This process of converting outside stimuli into neural activity with sensory receptors • Taste (gustation): food molecules • Vision: light (photons) • Hearing (audition): sound waves • Touch (somatosensation): pressure & temperature • Smell (olfaction): molecules in the air • Others... Absolute Threshold - Minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time. EX: detection (light bulbs intensity) Difference Threshold - Minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time, also called just noticeable difference (JND) Weber's Law - In humans, difference thresholds (experienced as a just noticeable difference) increase in proportion to the size of the stimulus Two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount), to be perceived as different. Weber fraction: k = ΔI/I. Weber's Law: Example - • Suppose you presented two light bulbs each with an intensity of 100 units to an observer. Then you asked the observer to increase the intensity of one of the light bulbs until it was just noticeably brighter than the other. • If the brightness needed to yield the just noticeable difference was 108 units then the observer's difference threshold would be 8 units (i.e., ΔI = 108 - 100 = 8). • The Weber fraction equivalent for this difference threshold would be .08 (i.e., ΔI/I = 8/100 = .08) • You can now predict the difference threshold needed for a light bulb of any other intensity value Subliminal Stimuli - subliminal or "below threshold stimuli" are those just strong enough for our sensory receptors to pick them up, but not strong enough for us to be able to detect them Priming (or subliminal threshold) - The priming effect and other experiments reveal that we can process some info. from stimuli too weak to recognize/detect (below the absolute threshold). -- The effect is too subtle or weak to be enduring on behavior so no worries about subliminal advertising Microsaccades - constant movement of the eyes; tiny little vibrations that people do not notice consciously; prevents sensory adaptation to visual stimuli. Habituation - The tendency of the brain to stop attending to constant, unchanging information. -- the brain ignores stimuli that are being sensed, but do not change Sensory Adaptation - The tendency of the sensory receptors to become less responsive to a stimulus that is unchanging -- receptors less responsive to the stimulus, and therefore no longer send signals to the brain Basics of Sensation - Sensation is the process by which information from the outside world enters the brain -- Information enters by way of activation of the sensory receptors on the various sense organs -- When sensory receptors are stimulated, they convert the different types of environmental stimuli into neural activity -- Can consciously or unconsciously sense stimuli based on the strength of the stimulation -- To help manage the large amount of environmental stimuli available, our brains/bodies selectively attend to those stimuli deemed most salient, often ignoring stimuli that do not change through sensory adaptation or cognitive habituation Vision - Light: Transduction & Phototransduction - Transduction: transformation of stimulus energy into a neural impulses Phototransduction: conversion of light energy into neural impulses that brain can understand Light Characteristics - 1. color (hue) 2. brightness (intensity) 3. saturation (purity) 1. Color (Hue) - •Wavelength - length of wave, distance between wave peaks 2. Brightness (intensity) - •Amplitude - height of the wave, how high or low wave is 3. Saturation (purity) - • weather or how much mixture of wavelengths Wavelengths (Color/Hues) Chart { ROYGBIV } Different wavelengths of light result in different colors. - Different wavelengths of light result in different colors. 400 nm, short wavelengths Violet Indigo Blue Green Yellow Orange Red 700 nm, long wavelengths Intensity (Brightness) -- amount of energy in a wave determined by an amplitude How is amplitude determined as great or small? - -- Larger squiggly line with TALL humps = great amplitude (bright colors, loud sounds) -- Smaller squiggly lone with SHORT humps = small amplitude (dull colors, soft sounds) Parts of the eye - Cornea Iris Lens Retina Cornea - Transparent tissue where light enters the eye. Iris - Muscle that expands and contracts to change the size of opening (pupil) for light. lens - Focuses the light rays on the retina -- Through visual accommodation, process by which the eye's lens changes shape to help focus near or far objects on the retina Retina - Contains sensory receptors that process visual information and send it to the brain. Pupil - Where light comes in Photoreceptors { Rods vs Cones } - 1) Cones -- 6 million -- located in center of retina -- low sensitivity in dim light -- YES color & detail sensitive 2) Rods -- 120 million -- located in periphery of retina -- high sensitivity in dim light -- NOT color or detail sensitive Retina (in depth) - The light‐sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing photoreceptor rods & cones plus layers of other neurons (bipolar & ganglion cells) that process visual information. Bipolar Cells - receive messages from photoreceptors and transmit them to ganglion cells, which form the optic nerve Ganglion Cells - form the optic nerve Optic Nerve - Carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain Blind Spot - Point where optic nerve leaves the eye, because there are no receptor cells located here, it creates a blind spot Fovea - Central point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster. Visual Information Processing - Optic nerves connect to the thalamus in the middle of the brain, and the thalamus to the visual cortex. (Recall:) Thalamus - Thalamus is the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem. It directs all sensory messages to the sensory areas in the cortex. [except: SMELL!] Two theories of Color Vision - -- Trichromatic Theory -- Opponent Process Theory Trichromatic Theory - theory of color vision that proposes three types of cones: red, blue, and green. -- light of any color can be matched by the additive mixture of these 3 primary colors -- most known facts about color blindness are explained well (EX: staring at Green American Flag, flash to white screen and temporarily see normal US flag ) Opponent Process Theory - based on the idea that there are four primary colors: red, green, blue, and yellow. The colors are arranged in pairs (red with green and blue with yellow) and if one member of a pair is stimulated, the other member is inhibited. -- Explains afterimage, visual sensation that persists for a brief time after original stimulus is removed Explain how both color vision theories are right... - • The receptors that do the first stage of processing seem to follow the principles outlined in Trichromatic Theory. In later stages of processing, cells in the retina and the brain seem to follow the principles outline in the Opponent Process Theory. Visual Perception - • Perception -- The method by which the sensations experienced at any given moment are interpreted and organized in some meaningful fashion Visual Perception: Size Constancey - the tendency to interpret an object as always being the same actual size, regardless of its distance (size on retina gets smaller) Visual Perception: Shape Constancy - the tendency to interpret the shape of an object as being constant, even when its shape changes on the retina Visual Perception: Perceptual Set - the tendency to perceive things a certain way because previous experiences or expectations influence those perceptions Gestalt: Figure-Ground - the tendency to perceive objects, or figures, as existing on a background EX: black and white photo of white looking like a column or chalice while the back background looks like 2 faces facing each other [ shape constancy ? ] Proximity - When objects are close to one another, we tend to perceive them together rather than separately [ shape constancy ? ] Similarity - objects that are of a similar color, size, or shape are usually perceived as part of a pattern [ shape constancy ? ] Closure - people are inclined to overlook incompleteness in sensory information and to perceive a whole object even where none really exists [ shape constancy ? ] Continuity - items that continue a pattern or direction tend to be grouped together as part of a pattern [ shape constancy ? ] Factors that influence Perception - Top down processing Bottom Up processing Top down processing - the use of pre‐existing knowledge to organize individual features into a unified whole (upside down pyramid, start with large at top and go down with tip at bottom) -- formulate perceptual hypothesis about the nature of the stimulus as a whole -- select and examine feature to check hypothesis -- recognize stimulus Bottom Up processing - the analysis of the smaller features to build up to a complete perception (normal pyramid, start at large bottom and go up to tip at the top) -- detect specific features of stimulus -- combine specific features into more complex form -- recognize simulus Müller-Lyer Illusion - Illusion of line length that is distorted by inward‐ turning or outward‐turning corners on the ends of the lines, causing lines of equal length to appear to be different Hearing - KNOW: The Stimulus Input: Sound Waves Parts of the Ear Hearing Impairment Sound Wave - the stimulus input -- vibrations of the molecules of air that surround us Acoustical Transduction - Conversion of sound waves into neural impulses in the hairs cells of the inner ear Sound Characteristics - Pitch Volume Timbre Pitch (Frequency) - determined by the wavelength or frequency. (low, medium, high) -- measured in hertz (Hz) = wave cycles per second Short vs Long Wavelength for Frequency/Pitch - wavelength: distance from peak of one wave to peak of the next (peak meaning middle of hump on squiggly) -- Short wavelengths = high frequency (bluish colors, high-pitched sounds) -- Long wavelengths = low frequency (reddish colors, low-pitched sounds) Volume (Loudness) - determined by amplitude (softer vs louder) -- Measured in decibels (dB) Chart for Loudness of Sound - Decibels 140 - rock band 130 - 120 - loud thunder 110 - jet plane at 500 ft 100 - subway train at 20 feet 90 - 85 - - - - above can cause hearing loss - - - - - - 80 - busy street corner 70 - 60 - normal convo 50 - 40 - typical room 30 - 20 - whisper 10 - 0 - threshold of hearing Timbre - Determined by the purity or the complexity (richness) of the tone of the sound Parts of the ear - Outer Ear [Eardrum] Middle Ear [oval window] Inner Ear [cochlea] Outer ear - Consists of pinna that collects & funnels sounds. Eardrum - vibrates when sound waves hit Middle - Chamber between eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) that send vibrations to the cochlea's oval window. Inner - Innermost part of the ear consists largely of the cochlea, a fluid filled, coiled shaped tunnel that contains receptors for hearing Theories of Hearing: Pitch Perception - Place Theory Frequency Theory Volley Principle Place Theory - suggests that different sound waves stimulate the basilar membrane at different and specific places resulting in perceived pitch. high pitch Frequency Theory - the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense pitch. low pitch Volley Priciple - diff. frequencies cause the hair cells (auditory neurons) to fire in a volley pattern, or take turns in firing. high-low pitch Explain how all 3 theories of hearing & pitch perception are correct... - • Place theory best explains how we perceive high-pitched sounds (1000Hz), and • Frequency theory best explains how we perceive low-pitched sounds (1000Hz) • Volley theory best explains how we perceive moderate to high pitches, between 40 Hz to about 4000 Hz. Localization of Sounds - B/c we have two ears, sounds reach one faster than the other helping us to localize sound. Hearing Impairment - Conduction Hearing Impairment Nerve Hearing Impairment Conduction Hearing Impairment - -- When sound waves cannot pass from eardrum to the cochlea. -- Caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea. EX: ear drum punctured or tiny bones in middle ear can't vibrate. •Hearing aids Nerve Hearing Impairment - -- when the inner ear or in the auditory pathways and cortical areas of the brain. -- Caused by damage to the cochlea's hair cells or to the auditory nerve, also called nerve deafness or sensorineural hearing loss. EX: disease, aging, over‐exposure to loud sounds •Cochlear implant Hearing Deficits - Older people tend to hear low frequencies well but suffer hearing loss for higher frequencies. Taste - KNOW: The Stimulus Input: Chemicals Gustatory (taste) receptors The five basic tastes Stimulus Input of Taste - Chemicals from food molecules Gustatory (taste) Receptors - Gustatory (taste) receptors are clusters of cells, responsible for taste, mostly located on tongue Gustatory transduction - conversion of food molecules into neural impulses Five Basic Tastes - 1. Sweet 2. Sour 3. Salty 4. Bitter 5. Unami - "brothy" or "savory" Smell - KNOW: The Stimulus Input: Chemicals Olfactory Cilia Stimulus input of Smell - Chemicals Olfactory Cilia - the hair‐like structures located in the upper portion of the nasal passages and are responsible for smell. Olfactory Transduction - Conversion of chemical molecules in the air into neural impulses by the olfactory cilia. Olfactory Receptors - send neural signals related to smell directly up to the olfactory bulbs Smell and the Brain: Olfactory bulb has projections to the _________ - Olfactory bulb has projections to the __limbic system__ Somesthetic Senses - the body senses consisting of the skin senses, the kinesthetic sense, and the vestibular senses -- "soma" = body -- "esthetic" = feeling Skin Stimulus Input (skin senses): - -- touch, pressure, temperature, pain • Sensory receptors in the skin • Nerve fibers that carry information about tactile stimulation are routed through the thalamus and onward to the somatosensory cortex • Located in the ??? Kinesthetic Sense - Sense of the location of body parts in relation to the ground and each other • Processed by proprioceptors in the skin, joints, muscles, and tendons Vestibular Sense - Sense of movement, balance and body position • Processed by vestibular organs in the inner ear • Otolith organs for sensing translations • Semicircular canals for sensing rotations CHAPTER 4: Consciousness - CARDS 252-357 Consciousn