Test Bank for Applied Pathophysiology, 4th Edition by Judi Nath

Test Bank for Applied Pathophysiology: A Conceptual Approach 4e 4th Edition by Judi Nath; Carie Braun. ISBN-13: 9199 Full Chapters test bank included 1 Introduction to Pathophysiology Introduction Defining Pathophysiology Understanding Pathophysiology Pathogenesis Etiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis and Treatment Applying Pathophysiology Individual Health Population Health Disease Prevention Evidence-Based Practice Functional Concepts of Altered Health 2 Altered Cells and Tissues Introduction Module 1: Review of Cellular Structure and Function Cellular Components Plasma (Cell) Membrane Cytoplasm and Organelles Cytoskeleton Cellular Function Cellular Mechanisms of Transportation Passive Transport Active Transport Ingestion Secretion Respiration Communication Reproduction Module 2: Cellular Adaptation and Response to Stress Atrophy Hypertrophy Hyperplasia Metaplasia Dysplasia Module 3: Cellular Injury and Death Mechanisms of Cell Death Apoptosis Necrosis Causes of Cell Injury and Death Module 4: Clinical Models Cerebral Atrophy Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Cardiac Hypertrophy Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Acromegaly Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Cervical Metaplasia and Dysplasia Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Screening Tests Diagnostic Tests Treatment Environmental Toxin Injury and Cardiovascular Disease Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment 3 Inflammation and Tissue Repair Introduction Review of Body Defense Mechanisms Module 1: Acute Inflammation Vascular Response Inflammatory Mediators Within Cells Inflammatory Mediators Within White Blood Cells Inflammatory Mediators Within Platelets Inflammatory Mediators Within Endothelial or Injured Tissue Cells Inflammatory Mediators Within Plasma Cellular Response General Manifestations Treatment Resolution of Acute Inflammation Module 2: Healing and Tissue Repair Sealing the Wound Clearing the Debris Restoring Structural Integrity Restoring Functional Integrity Conditions That Promote Wound Healing Healing by Intention Complications of Healing and Tissue Repair Module 3: Chronic Inflammation Cells of Chronic Inflammation Granuloma Formation General Manifestations Treatment Module 4: Applied Pathophysiology Clinical Models Sinusitis Functions of the Sinuses Acute Sinusitis Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Chronic Sinusitis Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Skin and Burn Injuries Functions of the Skin Burns Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Arthritis Functions of Synovial Joints Rheumatoid Arthritis Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Gastritis Functions of the Stomach Acute Gastritis Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Chronic Gastritis: Infection Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Chronic Gastritis: Autoimmune Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Pancreatitis Functions of the Pancreas Acute Pancreatitis Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Chronic Pancreatitis Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Inflammatory Bowel Disease Functions of the Small Intestine Crohn Disease Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Functions of the Large Intestine Ulcerative Colitis Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment 4 Altered Immunity Introduction Module 1: Review of Immune Function Cellular Components of Immunity Immune Cell Origin Lymphoid Progenitor Cells Myeloid Progenitor Cells Lymphatics Immune Processes Innate Immunity Adaptive Immunity Humoral Immunity Cell-Mediated Immunity Module 2: Process of Altering Immune Function Host Defense Failure Hypersensitivity Type I or Immediate Hypersensitivity Reaction Type II Antibody-mediated Reactions Type III Immune Complex–mediated Reaction Type IV Cell-mediated Hypersensitivity Reaction Autoimmunity Alloimmunity Graft Rejection Graft Versus Host Disease Module 3: Immune Response Manipulation Treatment of Maladaptive Immune Responses Immune Response in Disease Management Immune Response in the Prevention of Disease Module 4: Clinical Models Immune Maladaptation: AIDS Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Immune Maladaptation: Anaphylactic Reaction Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Immune Maladaptation: Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Three Immunologic Domains Treatment Immune Maladaptation: Rh Isoimmunization Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment 5 Infection Introduction Module 1: Microbes Pathogens Types of Pathogens Bacteria Viruses Rickettsiae, Mycoplasmas, and Chlamydiae Fungi Protozoa Module 2: Communicable Disease Reservoir Portal of Exit Mode of Transmission Portal of Entry Host Factors Module 3: Acute Infection and Complications Complications of Infection Clinical Manifestations Laboratory and Diagnostic Tests Treatment Modalities Module 4: Clinical Models Influenza Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Hepatitis The Function of the Liver Viral Hepatitis Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Tuberculosis Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Urinary Tract Infection Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Pyelonephritis Function of the Kidneys Acute Pyelonephritis Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Meningitis Function of the Meninges Bacterial Meningitis Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Tinea Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Malaria Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment 6 Genetic and Developmental Disorders Introduction Module 1: Review of Genetic Processes Deoxyribonucleic Acid Genes Chromosomes Chromosomal Replication Module 2: Inheritance of Genetic Disorders Transmission and Expression of Genetic Traits Inheritance of Single Gene Disorders Genetic Mutations Autosomal Dominant Disorders Autosomal Recessive Disorders Sex-Linked Disorders Mitochondrial Diseases Inheritance of Polygenic Disorders Inheritance of Chromosomal Alterations Alterations in Chromosomal Number Alterations in Chromosomal Structure Epigenetic Inheritance Module 3: Developmental Disorders Congenital Disorders Developmental Origins of Adult Disease Module 4: Management of Genetic and Developmental Disorders Screening and Diagnosis Prenatal Screening and Diagnosis Postnatal Screening and Diagnosis Treatment Strategies Module 5: Clinical Models Autosomal Dominant Genetic Disorder: Huntington Disease Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Autosomal Recessive Disorder: Sickle Cell Disease Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Mitochondrial Disease Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Alteration in Autosome Chromosome Number: Down Syndrome Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Alteration in Sex Chromosome Number: Turner Syndrome and Klinefelter Syndrome Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Sex-Linked Genetic Disorder: Fragile X Syndrome (FXS) Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Epigenetic Inheritance: Beckwith–Wiedemann Syndrome Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Developmental Maladaptation: Neural Tube Defects Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Testing Treatment 7 Altered Cellular Proliferation and Differentiation Introduction Module 1: The Impact of Cancer on the Cell Altered Cellular Proliferation and Differentiation Carcinogenesis Genetic Mutations Oncogenes Tumor Suppressor Genes Role of Gene Variants and Epigenetics Carcinogens Radiation Hormones Chemicals Tobacco Microbes Initiation–Promotion–Progression Theory Module 2: The Impact of Cancer on Tissues, Organs, and Organ Systems Benign Versus Malignant Cancer Spread Cancer Nomenclature Cancer Classifications Cancer Prognosis General Manifestations Diagnostic Tests Cancer Treatment Cancer Prevention Children and Cancer Module 3: Clinical Models Lung Cancer Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Colon Cancer Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Brain Cancer Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Leukemia Acute Leukemias Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Chronic Lymphocytic and Myelogenous Leukemias Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Lymphomas Hodgkin Lymphoma Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment 8 Altered Fluid and Electrolyte Balance Introduction Module 1: Electrolyte Imbalance Electrolyte Transport Altered Electrolyte Balance Altered Sodium Balance Hyponatremia Hypernatremia Altered Potassium Balance Hypokalemia Hyperkalemia Altered Chloride Balance Hypochloremia Hyperchloremia Altered Calcium Balance Hypocalcemia Hypercalcemia Altered Magnesium Balance Hypomagnesemia Hypermagnesemia Altered Phosphate Balance Hypophosphatemia Hyperphosphatemia Module 2: Fluid Imbalance Fluid Balance Fluid Transport Fluid Regulation Mechanisms to Promote Fluid Intake Mechanisms to Promote Fluid Excretion Tonicity Altered Fluid Balance Water Content Hypovolemia Hemorrhage Dehydration Water Intoxication Hypervolemia Edema Module 3: Clinical Models Altered Fluid Balance: Cirrhosis Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Altered Sodium Balance: Dehydration Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Altered Calcium Balance: Hypoparathyroidism Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment 9 Altered Acid–Base Balance Introduction Module 1: Acid–Base Imbalance Regulation of Acid and Base Buffer Systems Altered Acid–Base Balance Metabolic Acidosis Metabolic Alkalosis Module 2: Clinical Models Altered Acid–Base Balance: Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART)-Associated Acidosis Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Altered Acid–Base Balance: Renal Tubulopathy Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Altered Acid–Base Balance: Metabolic Acidosis in Parenteral Nutrition Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment 10 Altered Neural Function Introduction Module 1: Alterations in Nerve Impulse Conduction Neurons Supporting Cells Neurotransmission Communication Between Neurons Processes of Neural Injury Developmental Considerations Module 2: Alterations in Central Nervous System Function Central Nervous System Organization Brain Spinal Cord Protective Structures of the CNS Neurocirculatory System Cerebrovascular Circulation Blood–Brain Barrier Cerebrospinal Fluid CNS Cellular Injury Mechanisms Of Injury To The CNS Traumatic CNS Injury Ischemic CNS Injury Excitation Injury CNS Pressure Injury Module 3: Alterations in Peripheral Nervous System Function Peripheral Nervous System Organization Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System Sympathetic Nervous System Parasympathetic Nervous System Reflex Arcs Peripheral Nervous System Cellular Injury Mechanisms Of Injury To The Peripheral Nervous System Traumatic Peripheral Nerve Injury Peripheral Nervous System Pressure Injury Peripheral Nervous System Motor Dysfunction Module 4: Clinical Models Cerebral Palsy Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Multiple Sclerosis Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Hydrocephalus Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Incomplete Spinal Cord Transection Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Parkinson Disease Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment 11 Altered Mood, Attention, and Behavior Introduction Module 1: Regulation of Mood, Attention, and Behavior Regulation of Mood Regulation of Attention Behavior Regulation Module 2: Alterations in Mood, Attention, and Behavior Alterations in Brain Structure and Function Recognizing Alterations in Mood, Attention, and Behavior Treating Alterations in Mood, Attention, and Behavior Module 3: Clinical Models Generalized Anxiety Disorder Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Major Depressive Disorder Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Bipolar Affective Disorder Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Autism Spectrum Disorders Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Schizophrenia Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment 12 Altered Somatic and Special Sensory Function Introduction Module 1: Pain Somatosensory System Somatosensory Neuronal Organization Somatosensory Neurotransmission Dorsal Root Ganglia Fibers Dermatome Innervation Somatosensory Processing Somatosensory Modalities Stimulus Discrimination Tactile Stimulation Thermal Sensation Position Sensation Pain Characterization Of Pain Conduction Of Pain Sensation Theories Of Pain Pattern Theory Specificity Theory Gate Control Theory Intensity Theory Neuromatrix Theory of Pain Manifestations And Evaluation Of Pain Treatment Of Pain Module 2: Alterations in Vision Visual Structures and Function Control Of Eye Movement Protective Eye Structures External Structures Tears Aqueous Humor Alterations in Visual Function Errors In Refraction Alterations In Eye Movement Alterations In Protective Eye Structures Manifestations And Evaluation Of Alterations In Vision Treatment Of Alterations In Vision Module 3: Alterations in Hearing and Balance Structural Components of the Ear External Ear Middle Ear Internal Ear Hearing Processes Balance Processes Alterations in Hearing and Balance Disorders Of The External Ear Alteration In Middle Ear Function Alteration In Internal Ear Function Manifestations And Evaluation Of Alterations In Hearing Hearing Evaluation Evaluation Of The Middle Ear Evaluation Of The Internal Ear Treatment of Alterations in Hearing Taste and Smell Taste Smell Module 4: Clinical Models Fibromyalgia Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Migraine Headache Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Otitis Media Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Ménière Disease Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Macular Degeneration Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Glaucoma Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Retinopathy of Prematurity Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment 13 Altered Hormonal and Metabolic Regulation Introduction Module 1: Function and Regulation of Hormones Integrating Endocrine, Neural, and Defense Mechanisms in the Body Regulating Hormones The Hypothalamic–Pituitary Axis Feedback Mechanisms Hormone Secretion, Metabolism, And Elimination Receptor Binding Mediating Cell-to-Cell Communication Module 2: The Stress Response Neurologic Response to Stress Hormonal Response to Stress General Adaptation Syndrome Module 3: Altered Hormone Function Damage to the Hypothalamic–Pituitary Axis Damage to Endocrine Glands Damage to Cell Receptors Damage to Feedback Mechanisms Damage to Metabolism and Elimination Mechanisms General Manifestations of Altered Hormone Function Diagnosing and Treating Altered Hormone Function Module 4: Clinical Models Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Diabetes Insipidus Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Hyperthyroidism Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Hypothyroidism Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Cushing Syndrome Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Addison Disease Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment 14 Altered Reproductive Function Introduction Module 1: Regulation of Reproduction Female Reproductive Hormone Function Male Reproductive Hormone Function Module 2: Altered Reproductive Function General Manifestations of Altered Reproductive Function Diagnosing and Treating Altered Reproductive Function Module 3: Clinical Models Pelvic Inflammatory Disease Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Ovarian Cancer Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Menopause Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Erectile Dysfunction Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Prostate Cancer Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Testicular Cancer Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment 15 Altered Ventilation and Diffusion Introduction Module 1: Pulmonary Structure and Function Ventilation Inspiration Expiration Measurement Of Ventilation Diffusion Partial Pressure Oxygen Diffusion And Transport Carbon Dioxide Diffusion And Transport Diffusing Capacity Module 2: Impaired Ventilation Impaired Ventilation–Perfusion Matching Impaired Diffusion The Effects of Impaired Ventilation and Diffusion Hypoxemia and Hypoxia Hypercapnia General Manifestations Of Impaired Ventilation And Diffusion Laboratory And Diagnostic Tests Treating Impaired Ventilation And Diffusion Module 3: Clinical Models Pneumonia Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Emphysema Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Chronic Bronchitis Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Asthma Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Cystic Fibrosis PATHOPHYSIOLOGY Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment 16 Altered Perfusion Introduction Module 1: Perfusion From Ventilation to Perfusion Circulation Pulmonary Circulation Systemic Circulation Coronary Circulation Movement of Blood Through the Circulation Cardiac Cycle Conduction Of Impulses Cardiac Output Blood Pressure Neural Control Of Blood Pressure And Cardiovascular Adaptation Module 2: Altered Perfusion Ventilation–Perfusion Mismatching Impaired Circulation Inadequate Cardiac Output Excessive Perfusion Demands General Manifestations of Altered Perfusion Diagnosing and Treating Altered Perfusion Module 3: Clinical Models Hypertension Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Shock Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Myocardial Infarction Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Heart Failure Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Stroke Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment 17 Altered Nutrition Introduction Module 1: Nutrition Water Macronutrients: Proteins, Lipids, and Carbohydrates Micronutrients: Vitamins and Minerals Nutritional Intake Requirements Intake and Storage of Nutrients Digestion Absorption Glucose and Fructose Absorption Amino Acid and Small Peptide Absorption Fatty Acid and Glycerol Absorption Module 2: Altered Nutrition Inherited Metabolic Disorders Undernutrition Vitamin and Mineral Deficiencies Protein Energy Malnutrition Overnutrition Malabsorption Food Allergy General Manifestations of Altered Nutrition Diagnostic Tests and Treatments Related to Altered Nutrition Module 3: Clinical Models Iron-Deficiency Anemia Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Anorexia Nervosa Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Celiac Disease (Gluten-Sensitive Enteropathy) Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Phenylketonuria Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Obesity Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment 18 Altered Elimination Introduction Module 1: Altered Urinary Elimination Urine Production Process Urine Production Urine Removal Urine Characteristics Urine Analysis Altered Urinary Elimination Processes of Altered Urinary Elimination Alteration in Urinary Motility Alteration in Urinary Neuromuscular Function Alteration in Urinary Perfusion Alteration in Urinary Patency General Manifestations of Altered Urinary Elimination Diagnosis of Conditions of the Renal and Urinary Systems Treatment of Altered Urinary Elimination Module 2: Alteration in Stool Elimination Processes of Stool Elimination Stool Elimination Process Stool Production Stool Evacuation Stool Characteristics Stool Analysis Altered Bowel Elimination Processes of Altered Bowel Elimination Alteration in Bowel Motility Alteration in Bowel Neuromuscular Function Alteration in Bowel Perfusion Alteration in Bowel Patency General Manifestations of Altered Bowel Elimination Diagnosis of Bowel Conditions Treatment of Altered Bowel Elimination Module 3: Clinical Models Urolithiasis Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Urinary Incontinence Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Polycystic Kidney Disease Pathophysiology Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Diverticular Disease Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Functional Fecal Incontinence Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment 19 Degenerative Changes in Aging Introduction Module 1: Theories of Aging Theories of Aging Developmental Theories Stochastic Theories Module 2: General Manifestations of Aging Cellular Changes in Aging Aging and Appearance Fluid and Electrolyte Balance Immune Response Age-Related Proliferative Changes Neurologic Function Mobility Perfusion and Ventilation Metabolic Processes Nutrition and Elimination Module 3: Managing Degenerative Changes in Older People Module 4: Clinical Models Progeria (Hutchinson-Gilford Progeria Syndrome) Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Osteoporosis Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Alzheimer Disease Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment 20 Integrated Pathophysiologic Concepts Introduction Glucose, Insulin, Energy, and the Pancreas Diabetes Mellitus Insulin Deficit: Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Insulin Resistance and Reduction: Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Criteria Treatment Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Acute Complications of Diabetes Mellitus Hypoglycemia Diabetic Ketoacidosis Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar Nonketotic Syndrome The Somogyi Effect and Dawn Phenomenon Chronic Complications of Diabetes Mellitus Microvascular Complications Macrovascular Complications Neuropathies