INTRODUCTION
It is generally agreed among scholars that Middle Eastern merchants frequented the
Malabar Coast, which was the link between the West and ports of East Asia, even before
Islam had been established in Arabia. The western coast of India was the chief centre of
Middle Eastern trading activities right from at least 4th century AD and by about 7th century
AD, and several West Asian merchants had taken permanent residence in some port cities of
the Malabar Coast. A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of
considerable Muslim population in the coastal towns.
In historic times, many people converted at the lower end of the caste strata due to
personal needs of equality which was promised in other religions like Islam, Christianity etc.
However there have been many cases where a popular figure did it as a sacrifice, especially if
one of the wandering mendicants help ward off or cure a sickness, save a loved one etc. It
could have been some such reason as well! But as you can imagine without any kind of
documents, it is proving difficult.
Only the first sources left are the Genizh documents. But having seen some of them to
be purely trade documents. the other sources are unheralded Greek, roman or Chinese
documents. In the Genizah it is specifically stated that one of the safest harbors in the
1000AD times was Quilon.The Cheraman Juma Musjid in Kodungallur (ancient Muziris) in
Kerala. This mosque, believed to have been built by Malik bin Dinar in 629 AD, is
considered to be the oldest mosque in India. If this date is accurate, then this mosque was
established much before the time of Adi Shankara (if we go by the dates ascribed by Sringeri
Preetam) and around the same time Huen Tsang was in India. This mosque has quite a
history.
In keeping with Kodungallur's significant role in the spice trade, the legends of Kerala
Christians, Jews and Muslims all depict this port city as the focal point for the spread of their
respective faiths. According to the legend of Cheraman Perumal, or as per one version of it,
As the tradition goes, a Chera king, Cheramanperumal of Kodungallure, left for
Makkah, embraced Islam, and accepted the name Thajudeen. He married the sister of then
King of Jeddah. On his return trip, accompanied by many Islamic religious leaders, led by
Malik-ibn-Dinar , he fell sick and passed away. But he had given introductory letters for the
team to proceed to ‘Muziris’ Kodungallur, the Chera capital. The visitors came to Muziris
and handed over the latter to the reigning king, who treated the guests with all respect and
extended facilities to establish their faith in the land. The king also organised help for the
,artisans to build the first Mosque at Kodungallur, by converting Arathali temple into a Juma-
Masjid. It was build in 629 A.C., and the area around it had been ear-marked for the team’s
settlement.
This story seems to be a myth propagated in the book Keralolpathi (The origin of
Kerala) and repeated many times over. None of the reputed history books mention this story,
even the ones by eminent historians.
According to Sreedhara Menon The Cheraman legend is not corroborated by any
contemporary record or evidence. None of the early or medieval travelers who visited Kerala
has referred to it in their records. Thus Sulaiman, Al Biruni, Benjamin of Tuleda, Al Kazwini,
Marco Polo, Friar Odoric, Friar Jordanus, Ibn Babuta, Abdur Razzak, Nicolo-Conti – none of
these travelers speaks of the story of the Cheraman’s alleged conversion to Islam.
A mention of the Cheraman Perumal legend appeared in the 16th century
book Tuhafat-ul Mujahidin by Shaik Zainuddin, but he too did not believe in its historical
authenticity. But later cut and paste historians seem to have forgot to add his disclaimer.
Sreedhara Menon also authoritatively states that Kerala never had a king called Cheraman
Perumal and quotes Dr Herman Gundert, the German who composed the first Malayalam-
English dictionary and the grandfather of Herman Hesse for this. But there seems to have
been a Cheraman Perumal, whose history is overlaid by legend. According to Saiva tradition,
he had an association with a Sundaramurti, the last of the three hymnists of Devaram. This
Cheraman Perumal vanished in 825 A.D, about 200 years after Muhammed thus confirming
that all that Mecca trip was a fanciful legend
Historians dispute the date of conversion (A.D.856) although the fact of conversion
could be true. Modern scholarship tends to put the date of the last Perumal, Rama
Kulashekhara at 1089-c 1102 A.D. They also agree that the legend of Malik Dinar may be
historical, but the dates may have to be advanced. Thus, it is now accepted that the last
Perumal might have abdicated, embraced Islam and proceeded on a pilgrimage to Mecca
around the 12th Century. The tradition that the Perumal who was converted was a
contemporary of Prophet Mohammed, explains that the conversion came about after the
Perumal saw some signs (including the parting of the moon) and was convinced about the
greatness of the Prophet. Some stories even mention that the two had met. As we noted
above, the evidence seems to suggest that the date of conversion was much later, sometime in
the 12th Century.
, Strangely, I have not come across any new explanation being offered by historians for
the conversion, even though they are more or less convinced that the conversion took place
much later than what has been suggested in the tradition.
It would appear that the pro-Muslim tradition of the last Perumal was continued by
the first generations of Zamorins – the grant by a Zamorin of land for building
the Muccunti Mosque, the appointment of a Muslim as the chief of Calicut Port (Shah
Bunder) and the honour given to Muslim traders. Ibn Batuta (1342-47 A.D.) noted that
Muslim merchants had their houses in all districts and were greatly respected. These indicate
that it was the state policy to win the confidence of the Arab and Muslim traders who were
the instruments for bringing prosperity to the shores of Calicut. If so, was the conversion by
the Perumal also part of trade promotion? Did he seek to instil confidence in the Muslim
traders that the new port city of Calicut would welcome them cordially and treat them on
preferential terms? Trade was virtually in the hands of the Muslims during those days, as the
Romans, Venetians and Genoese had departed. Calicut, after all, had to compete with
Kodungalloor which was a congenial destination for the Muslim traders and had even hosted
the first Mosque in Asia.
It is tempting to propose that Perumal's conversion was meant to increase the volume
of trade coming to Calicut and was part of deliberate state policy. Particularly, as we seem to
have a parallel in the history of Malacca. Parameswara, a young Prince from Palembang
(Java) had to flee to the island of Temasek driven by the Javan overlords in the late
12th century. He established a small colony of orang laut (boat people) on this island which he
named Singhapura ( the present Singapore). He was not allowed to live in peace in Singapore
by his powerful neighbour – the Ayuthia Kingdom of Thailand. He fled once again, this time
to Bertam, on the tip of the Malayan archipelago and set up a habitation in a fishing village
which he named Malacca in 1396. The place slowly grew into a busy entreport, visited by the
Arab and Muslim traders. Like Calicut, Malacca was also on the monsoon route to China and
became a key link in the trade in spices.
Parameswara, a Hindu from the Srivijaya dynasty, decided to embrace Islam in 1400,
supposedly under the influence of Tamil Muslim traders (Rowthers and Marakkars), as he
found that the majority of the residents and visitors of the by now busy port was Muslim. The
Tamil traders then arranged a marriage alliance for him with a Muslim Princess of Pasai
( near Aceh) and Parameswara also took on a new name – Iskander Shah. Under the
patronage of Chinese, Tamil and Gujarati merchants, Malacca prospered as a famous port
where more than 80 languages were being spoken.
, Much of this glory is attributed to the clever move on the part of Parameswara to
embrace the 'religion of foreign trade', as much as to the protection that was offered by the
Ming dynasty whose most visible symbol was the frequently visiting Zheng He. Interestingly,
the chief of port operations of Malacca was also a Muslim and his designation was Shah
Bunder, as in Calicut.
Perhaps, there is a parallel between Perumal's conversion and Parameswara's
conversion. Trade took precedence over religion, as demonstrated by the Zamorin who had
no hesitation in allowing the entry of Vasco da Gama into the Durga Shrines at Putthoor and
Varakkal, without even bothering to clarify that the idol that he was worshipping was not that
of Mother Mary. Zamorin's instruction that every fisherman family should provide one male
for conversion to Islam in order to ensure supply of maritime manpower is another instance
of expediency above faith.
The conversions could also have been part of a global wave of spread of Islam in the
backdrop of the on-going Crusades. The same Tamil Muslim trader community who are
supposed to have converted Parameswara in Malacca might have influenced the Zamorin, as
part of an Islamisation wave.
There is lack of historic source on the topics "advent of Islam in Malabar" and
"conversion of the Cheraman Perumal" .Much of the Zamorin’s Granthavari has been lost,
only a small portion remains at the Vallathol library and I read recently about the tragedy of
the Chirakkal scrolls in Muarali’s nice book ‘Kovilakongalum Kottarangalum’)This proved
to be a particularly difficult story to research. The Mohammedan sites were emphatic in
concurrence, the Malayali researchers resolute in pointing out the conflicting facts. As before
that it is a tragedy that the people of Kerala never committed history (properly & factually) in
writing. Even though printing originated on the Calico cloth that came from Calicut in
Malabar, we continued to hack away on the leafy scrolls that were never the best when it
comes to long term storage As usual, the various languages and scripts in so small an area
meant that the text that survived is not uniformly understood or translated by people. The
people evolved, the culture changed – molding the influences from the peoples of the western
and eastern world, the languages a mix of Arabic, Tamil, Sanskrit and Malayalam, with the
translations to English sometimes hurried and suspect. It has always been so and when you
delve deep into history, you find that everything is based on a combination of myth, folklore,
exaggeration and little fact. To find that little fact amongst all this is not easy and many a
time you end up exactly where the writer intended, on the wrong path. I fear that I may do
exactly the same. The various versions & myths behind this story come from disputed
It is generally agreed among scholars that Middle Eastern merchants frequented the
Malabar Coast, which was the link between the West and ports of East Asia, even before
Islam had been established in Arabia. The western coast of India was the chief centre of
Middle Eastern trading activities right from at least 4th century AD and by about 7th century
AD, and several West Asian merchants had taken permanent residence in some port cities of
the Malabar Coast. A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of
considerable Muslim population in the coastal towns.
In historic times, many people converted at the lower end of the caste strata due to
personal needs of equality which was promised in other religions like Islam, Christianity etc.
However there have been many cases where a popular figure did it as a sacrifice, especially if
one of the wandering mendicants help ward off or cure a sickness, save a loved one etc. It
could have been some such reason as well! But as you can imagine without any kind of
documents, it is proving difficult.
Only the first sources left are the Genizh documents. But having seen some of them to
be purely trade documents. the other sources are unheralded Greek, roman or Chinese
documents. In the Genizah it is specifically stated that one of the safest harbors in the
1000AD times was Quilon.The Cheraman Juma Musjid in Kodungallur (ancient Muziris) in
Kerala. This mosque, believed to have been built by Malik bin Dinar in 629 AD, is
considered to be the oldest mosque in India. If this date is accurate, then this mosque was
established much before the time of Adi Shankara (if we go by the dates ascribed by Sringeri
Preetam) and around the same time Huen Tsang was in India. This mosque has quite a
history.
In keeping with Kodungallur's significant role in the spice trade, the legends of Kerala
Christians, Jews and Muslims all depict this port city as the focal point for the spread of their
respective faiths. According to the legend of Cheraman Perumal, or as per one version of it,
As the tradition goes, a Chera king, Cheramanperumal of Kodungallure, left for
Makkah, embraced Islam, and accepted the name Thajudeen. He married the sister of then
King of Jeddah. On his return trip, accompanied by many Islamic religious leaders, led by
Malik-ibn-Dinar , he fell sick and passed away. But he had given introductory letters for the
team to proceed to ‘Muziris’ Kodungallur, the Chera capital. The visitors came to Muziris
and handed over the latter to the reigning king, who treated the guests with all respect and
extended facilities to establish their faith in the land. The king also organised help for the
,artisans to build the first Mosque at Kodungallur, by converting Arathali temple into a Juma-
Masjid. It was build in 629 A.C., and the area around it had been ear-marked for the team’s
settlement.
This story seems to be a myth propagated in the book Keralolpathi (The origin of
Kerala) and repeated many times over. None of the reputed history books mention this story,
even the ones by eminent historians.
According to Sreedhara Menon The Cheraman legend is not corroborated by any
contemporary record or evidence. None of the early or medieval travelers who visited Kerala
has referred to it in their records. Thus Sulaiman, Al Biruni, Benjamin of Tuleda, Al Kazwini,
Marco Polo, Friar Odoric, Friar Jordanus, Ibn Babuta, Abdur Razzak, Nicolo-Conti – none of
these travelers speaks of the story of the Cheraman’s alleged conversion to Islam.
A mention of the Cheraman Perumal legend appeared in the 16th century
book Tuhafat-ul Mujahidin by Shaik Zainuddin, but he too did not believe in its historical
authenticity. But later cut and paste historians seem to have forgot to add his disclaimer.
Sreedhara Menon also authoritatively states that Kerala never had a king called Cheraman
Perumal and quotes Dr Herman Gundert, the German who composed the first Malayalam-
English dictionary and the grandfather of Herman Hesse for this. But there seems to have
been a Cheraman Perumal, whose history is overlaid by legend. According to Saiva tradition,
he had an association with a Sundaramurti, the last of the three hymnists of Devaram. This
Cheraman Perumal vanished in 825 A.D, about 200 years after Muhammed thus confirming
that all that Mecca trip was a fanciful legend
Historians dispute the date of conversion (A.D.856) although the fact of conversion
could be true. Modern scholarship tends to put the date of the last Perumal, Rama
Kulashekhara at 1089-c 1102 A.D. They also agree that the legend of Malik Dinar may be
historical, but the dates may have to be advanced. Thus, it is now accepted that the last
Perumal might have abdicated, embraced Islam and proceeded on a pilgrimage to Mecca
around the 12th Century. The tradition that the Perumal who was converted was a
contemporary of Prophet Mohammed, explains that the conversion came about after the
Perumal saw some signs (including the parting of the moon) and was convinced about the
greatness of the Prophet. Some stories even mention that the two had met. As we noted
above, the evidence seems to suggest that the date of conversion was much later, sometime in
the 12th Century.
, Strangely, I have not come across any new explanation being offered by historians for
the conversion, even though they are more or less convinced that the conversion took place
much later than what has been suggested in the tradition.
It would appear that the pro-Muslim tradition of the last Perumal was continued by
the first generations of Zamorins – the grant by a Zamorin of land for building
the Muccunti Mosque, the appointment of a Muslim as the chief of Calicut Port (Shah
Bunder) and the honour given to Muslim traders. Ibn Batuta (1342-47 A.D.) noted that
Muslim merchants had their houses in all districts and were greatly respected. These indicate
that it was the state policy to win the confidence of the Arab and Muslim traders who were
the instruments for bringing prosperity to the shores of Calicut. If so, was the conversion by
the Perumal also part of trade promotion? Did he seek to instil confidence in the Muslim
traders that the new port city of Calicut would welcome them cordially and treat them on
preferential terms? Trade was virtually in the hands of the Muslims during those days, as the
Romans, Venetians and Genoese had departed. Calicut, after all, had to compete with
Kodungalloor which was a congenial destination for the Muslim traders and had even hosted
the first Mosque in Asia.
It is tempting to propose that Perumal's conversion was meant to increase the volume
of trade coming to Calicut and was part of deliberate state policy. Particularly, as we seem to
have a parallel in the history of Malacca. Parameswara, a young Prince from Palembang
(Java) had to flee to the island of Temasek driven by the Javan overlords in the late
12th century. He established a small colony of orang laut (boat people) on this island which he
named Singhapura ( the present Singapore). He was not allowed to live in peace in Singapore
by his powerful neighbour – the Ayuthia Kingdom of Thailand. He fled once again, this time
to Bertam, on the tip of the Malayan archipelago and set up a habitation in a fishing village
which he named Malacca in 1396. The place slowly grew into a busy entreport, visited by the
Arab and Muslim traders. Like Calicut, Malacca was also on the monsoon route to China and
became a key link in the trade in spices.
Parameswara, a Hindu from the Srivijaya dynasty, decided to embrace Islam in 1400,
supposedly under the influence of Tamil Muslim traders (Rowthers and Marakkars), as he
found that the majority of the residents and visitors of the by now busy port was Muslim. The
Tamil traders then arranged a marriage alliance for him with a Muslim Princess of Pasai
( near Aceh) and Parameswara also took on a new name – Iskander Shah. Under the
patronage of Chinese, Tamil and Gujarati merchants, Malacca prospered as a famous port
where more than 80 languages were being spoken.
, Much of this glory is attributed to the clever move on the part of Parameswara to
embrace the 'religion of foreign trade', as much as to the protection that was offered by the
Ming dynasty whose most visible symbol was the frequently visiting Zheng He. Interestingly,
the chief of port operations of Malacca was also a Muslim and his designation was Shah
Bunder, as in Calicut.
Perhaps, there is a parallel between Perumal's conversion and Parameswara's
conversion. Trade took precedence over religion, as demonstrated by the Zamorin who had
no hesitation in allowing the entry of Vasco da Gama into the Durga Shrines at Putthoor and
Varakkal, without even bothering to clarify that the idol that he was worshipping was not that
of Mother Mary. Zamorin's instruction that every fisherman family should provide one male
for conversion to Islam in order to ensure supply of maritime manpower is another instance
of expediency above faith.
The conversions could also have been part of a global wave of spread of Islam in the
backdrop of the on-going Crusades. The same Tamil Muslim trader community who are
supposed to have converted Parameswara in Malacca might have influenced the Zamorin, as
part of an Islamisation wave.
There is lack of historic source on the topics "advent of Islam in Malabar" and
"conversion of the Cheraman Perumal" .Much of the Zamorin’s Granthavari has been lost,
only a small portion remains at the Vallathol library and I read recently about the tragedy of
the Chirakkal scrolls in Muarali’s nice book ‘Kovilakongalum Kottarangalum’)This proved
to be a particularly difficult story to research. The Mohammedan sites were emphatic in
concurrence, the Malayali researchers resolute in pointing out the conflicting facts. As before
that it is a tragedy that the people of Kerala never committed history (properly & factually) in
writing. Even though printing originated on the Calico cloth that came from Calicut in
Malabar, we continued to hack away on the leafy scrolls that were never the best when it
comes to long term storage As usual, the various languages and scripts in so small an area
meant that the text that survived is not uniformly understood or translated by people. The
people evolved, the culture changed – molding the influences from the peoples of the western
and eastern world, the languages a mix of Arabic, Tamil, Sanskrit and Malayalam, with the
translations to English sometimes hurried and suspect. It has always been so and when you
delve deep into history, you find that everything is based on a combination of myth, folklore,
exaggeration and little fact. To find that little fact amongst all this is not easy and many a
time you end up exactly where the writer intended, on the wrong path. I fear that I may do
exactly the same. The various versions & myths behind this story come from disputed
