Sociology
Theme 1 - intro to social institutions
The Social Construction of Reality
I. Competing Theories and Social Interests
● A. Rival Theories and Extra-Theoretical Factors
○ Acceptance of theories often depends on non-theoretical, social interests, not
intrinsic validity.
○ Social groups adopt theories that resonate with their interests (e.g., upper class
vs. middle class).
○ Experts attach to these social “carrier” groups.
○ Example: Dervish theories A and B may align with different social strata.
● B. Pragmatic Use of Theory
○ Theories become social tools, not just abstract ideas.
○ They are "demonstrated" to work because they serve group interests, not
because they are “true.”
II. Monopolistic Control of Reality
● A. Universal Experts and Symbolic Monopoly
○ Some societies (e.g., primitive or archaic) have one dominant tradition.
○ Experts in these traditions are unchallenged authorities.
○ Examples:
■ Primitive societies, archaic civilizations.
■ Medieval Christendom as a symbolic monopoly.
● B. Methods to Eliminate Competition
○ Physical destruction (e.g., heretics).
○ Absorption/merger (e.g., rebranding pagan gods as saints).
○ Segregation (e.g., Jews in medieval Europe).
● C. Political-Conservative Alignment
○ Power structures often support monopolistic experts.
○ Churches as monopolistic institutions become inherently conservative once
established.
, ● D. When Monopolies Fail
○ Internal or external challenges can break the monopoly.
○ Leads to ideological struggle between competing traditions.
III. The Nature and Function of Ideology
● A. Definition and Use
○ Ideology = a definition of reality aligned with group interests.
○ More relevant in pluralistic or post-monopoly societies.
● B. Examples
○ Christianity as universal worldview in the Middle Ages vs. bourgeois ideology in
the Industrial Age.
○ Ancient Israel: peasant ideology promoting agrarian virtues.
● C. Adoption of Ideology
○ Sometimes based on fit with group needs, other times accidental (e.g.,
Constantine adopting Christianity).
○ Once adopted, ideologies are modified to suit group needs.
● D. Solidarity and Legitimacy
○ Ideologies promote group cohesion.
○ Sometimes support irrelevant theoretical points for symbolic or identity reasons.
IV. Pluralism and Modern Society
● A. Definition of Pluralism
○ Multiple partial realities coexist with a shared core worldview.
○ Tolerance replaces open conflict.
● B. Consequences for Experts
○ Traditional experts must legitimize their loss of monopoly.
○ Leads to theoretical compromises, ecumenism, or denial of change.
● C. Social Change and Pluralism
○ Pluralism destabilizes traditional realities.
○ Encourages skepticism, innovation, and change.
, V. The Role of Intellectuals
● A. Definition
○ Intellectual = expert whose knowledge is unwanted by society.
○ Marginal by definition, whether due to origin (e.g., Jewish intellectuals) or ideas.
● B. Intellectual as Counter-Expert
○ Offers alternate definitions of reality not sanctioned by institutions.
○ Exists outside institutional authority, often only within intellectual subcultures.
● C. Two Intellectual Paths
○ Withdrawal (e.g., religious sects, artistic bohemians).
○ Revolution (e.g., Marxist ideologues who later become state authorities).
● D. Social Base of Ideas
○ Even abstract theories need a social group to sustain them.
○ Sub-societies sustain sub-universes (e.g., revolutionary movements).
● E. Dialectic Between Ideas and Society
○ Relationships are mutual: ideas legitimize institutions, but institutions can change
to reflect ideas.
○ Example: Karl Marx — abstract theory becomes historical force.
VI. Internalization and Socialization (Subjective Reality)
A. Primary Socialization
● Definition: The first, foundational learning process in childhood.
● Key Features:
○ Involves emotional attachment to significant others (parents).
○ Internalized as the reality, not just a reality.
○ Leads to formation of identity and worldview.
● Generalized Other:
○ Internalized norms become generalized (e.g., “One does not spill soup”).
○ Results in stable identity and worldview.
● Language: Central to internalization and reality construction.
B. Secondary Socialization
● Definition: Role-specific socialization after childhood.
● Key Features:
○ Less emotionally intense.
Theme 1 - intro to social institutions
The Social Construction of Reality
I. Competing Theories and Social Interests
● A. Rival Theories and Extra-Theoretical Factors
○ Acceptance of theories often depends on non-theoretical, social interests, not
intrinsic validity.
○ Social groups adopt theories that resonate with their interests (e.g., upper class
vs. middle class).
○ Experts attach to these social “carrier” groups.
○ Example: Dervish theories A and B may align with different social strata.
● B. Pragmatic Use of Theory
○ Theories become social tools, not just abstract ideas.
○ They are "demonstrated" to work because they serve group interests, not
because they are “true.”
II. Monopolistic Control of Reality
● A. Universal Experts and Symbolic Monopoly
○ Some societies (e.g., primitive or archaic) have one dominant tradition.
○ Experts in these traditions are unchallenged authorities.
○ Examples:
■ Primitive societies, archaic civilizations.
■ Medieval Christendom as a symbolic monopoly.
● B. Methods to Eliminate Competition
○ Physical destruction (e.g., heretics).
○ Absorption/merger (e.g., rebranding pagan gods as saints).
○ Segregation (e.g., Jews in medieval Europe).
● C. Political-Conservative Alignment
○ Power structures often support monopolistic experts.
○ Churches as monopolistic institutions become inherently conservative once
established.
, ● D. When Monopolies Fail
○ Internal or external challenges can break the monopoly.
○ Leads to ideological struggle between competing traditions.
III. The Nature and Function of Ideology
● A. Definition and Use
○ Ideology = a definition of reality aligned with group interests.
○ More relevant in pluralistic or post-monopoly societies.
● B. Examples
○ Christianity as universal worldview in the Middle Ages vs. bourgeois ideology in
the Industrial Age.
○ Ancient Israel: peasant ideology promoting agrarian virtues.
● C. Adoption of Ideology
○ Sometimes based on fit with group needs, other times accidental (e.g.,
Constantine adopting Christianity).
○ Once adopted, ideologies are modified to suit group needs.
● D. Solidarity and Legitimacy
○ Ideologies promote group cohesion.
○ Sometimes support irrelevant theoretical points for symbolic or identity reasons.
IV. Pluralism and Modern Society
● A. Definition of Pluralism
○ Multiple partial realities coexist with a shared core worldview.
○ Tolerance replaces open conflict.
● B. Consequences for Experts
○ Traditional experts must legitimize their loss of monopoly.
○ Leads to theoretical compromises, ecumenism, or denial of change.
● C. Social Change and Pluralism
○ Pluralism destabilizes traditional realities.
○ Encourages skepticism, innovation, and change.
, V. The Role of Intellectuals
● A. Definition
○ Intellectual = expert whose knowledge is unwanted by society.
○ Marginal by definition, whether due to origin (e.g., Jewish intellectuals) or ideas.
● B. Intellectual as Counter-Expert
○ Offers alternate definitions of reality not sanctioned by institutions.
○ Exists outside institutional authority, often only within intellectual subcultures.
● C. Two Intellectual Paths
○ Withdrawal (e.g., religious sects, artistic bohemians).
○ Revolution (e.g., Marxist ideologues who later become state authorities).
● D. Social Base of Ideas
○ Even abstract theories need a social group to sustain them.
○ Sub-societies sustain sub-universes (e.g., revolutionary movements).
● E. Dialectic Between Ideas and Society
○ Relationships are mutual: ideas legitimize institutions, but institutions can change
to reflect ideas.
○ Example: Karl Marx — abstract theory becomes historical force.
VI. Internalization and Socialization (Subjective Reality)
A. Primary Socialization
● Definition: The first, foundational learning process in childhood.
● Key Features:
○ Involves emotional attachment to significant others (parents).
○ Internalized as the reality, not just a reality.
○ Leads to formation of identity and worldview.
● Generalized Other:
○ Internalized norms become generalized (e.g., “One does not spill soup”).
○ Results in stable identity and worldview.
● Language: Central to internalization and reality construction.
B. Secondary Socialization
● Definition: Role-specific socialization after childhood.
● Key Features:
○ Less emotionally intense.
