Enzymes and Metabolism
1
,Enzymes:................................................................................................................................ 3
Enzyme localisation:...........................................................................................................3
Protein structure:................................................................................................................ 3
Enzyme characteristics:..................................................................................................... 4
Enzyme reactions:..............................................................................................................4
Enzyme Kinetics:.......................................................................................................... 7
Regulation of enzyme activity:......................................................................................7
Co-enzymes and cofactors:................................................................................................9
Isoenzymes:..................................................................................................................... 10
Clinically significant enzymes:.......................................................................................... 11
Carbohydrates:.....................................................................................................................13
Digestion:......................................................................................................................... 13
Absorption:....................................................................................................................... 14
Glucose transporters:................................................................................................. 15
Energy sources:............................................................................................................... 16
Malnutrition:................................................................................................................ 16
Anthropometric measurements:................................................................................. 16
Carbohydrate Homeostasis and Metabolic Pathways:.....................................................17
Glycolysis:.................................................................................................................. 17
Red blood cell damage:........................................................................................19
Glycolysis regulation:............................................................................................19
Pathways interacting with glycolysis:....................................................................20
Alcohol Metabolism: (ethanol).......................................................................................... 22
Gluconeogenesis:.............................................................................................................23
Glycogenesis:...................................................................................................................24
Glycogenolysis:................................................................................................................ 25
The balance between storing and using stored glycogen:......................................... 25
Type 1 Diabetes:.............................................................................................................. 26
Type 2 diabetes:............................................................................................................... 27
The Krebs Cycle:..................................................................................................................28
Cycle regulation:.........................................................................................................29
Replenishing Cycle Intermediates:.............................................................................30
Enzymes/ Coenzymes and important vitamins they need:.........................................31
Vitamin deficiency:................................................................................................31
Electron Transport Chain:................................................................................................... 32
Uncoupling of ETC:.................................................................................................... 33
Lipids:................................................................................................................................... 34
Fatty acids:....................................................................................................................... 34
Lipid catabolism:...............................................................................................................38
Ketogenesis:...............................................................................................................40
Lipid anabolism:............................................................................................................... 42
Fatty Acid Synthesis:.................................................................................................. 43
TAG synthesis:........................................................................................................... 43
Lipid transport and lipoproteins:................................................................................. 44
2
, Cholesterol Synthesis:................................................................................................45
Eicosanoids:............................................................................................................... 46
Protein Metabolism:............................................................................................................. 48
Protein energy malnutrition:............................................................................................. 48
Protein Components and Structure:................................................................................. 49
Protein deficiency:............................................................................................................ 51
Protein absorption:........................................................................................................... 51
Biological values:........................................................................................................51
Amino acid catabolism:.................................................................................................... 52
Amino Acids to Keto Acids:........................................................................................ 56
Amino acids to neurotransmitters:.............................................................................. 57
Regulation of Protein metabolism:................................................................................... 58
Protein pathology:............................................................................................................ 59
Nucleotide Metabolism:....................................................................................................... 60
Pyrimidines and purines:.................................................................................................. 60
Nucleic acids:............................................................................................................. 61
Nucleotide biosynthesis:...................................................................................................62
Purine biosynthesis:................................................................................................... 63
Pyramidine biosynthesis:............................................................................................64
Formation of deoxynucleotides:................................................................................. 65
Nucleotide degradation:................................................................................................... 66
Gout:...........................................................................................................................67
Micronutrient metabolism:.................................................................................................. 71
Vitamins:...........................................................................................................................71
Cofactors and Coenzymes:.............................................................................................. 74
Minerals:...........................................................................................................................77
Metabolic regulation:........................................................................................................... 79
Fed state:......................................................................................................................... 79
Early fasting (Normal state):.............................................................................................81
Fasting >24hrs:................................................................................................................ 82
Diabetes type 1:............................................................................................................... 85
Diabetes type 2:............................................................................................................... 87
3
, Enzymes:
Markers for disease:
- Hepatitis (large liver and cell death)
- Myocardial infarction (heart attack atherosclerotic plaque rupture)
- Rhabdomyolysis (skeletal muscle breakdown)
Enzyme localisation:
- Gives a hint and links to its function
Intracellular:
1. Nucleus - DNA/RNA metabolism
2. Mitochondrial - energy reactions
3. Ribosomal - protein synthesis
4. Microsomal - hydroxylation reactions
5. Lysosomal - catabolic reactions
6. Cytoplasmic - glycolysis, lipogenesis
Extracellular:
- Digestive gastrointestinal enzymes
Blood:
- Diagnosis and prognosis
Protein structure:
Primary structure: polypeptides N-C termini linked by peptide bonds
Secondary structure: 𝜶-helixes or 𝜷-sheets
4
1
,Enzymes:................................................................................................................................ 3
Enzyme localisation:...........................................................................................................3
Protein structure:................................................................................................................ 3
Enzyme characteristics:..................................................................................................... 4
Enzyme reactions:..............................................................................................................4
Enzyme Kinetics:.......................................................................................................... 7
Regulation of enzyme activity:......................................................................................7
Co-enzymes and cofactors:................................................................................................9
Isoenzymes:..................................................................................................................... 10
Clinically significant enzymes:.......................................................................................... 11
Carbohydrates:.....................................................................................................................13
Digestion:......................................................................................................................... 13
Absorption:....................................................................................................................... 14
Glucose transporters:................................................................................................. 15
Energy sources:............................................................................................................... 16
Malnutrition:................................................................................................................ 16
Anthropometric measurements:................................................................................. 16
Carbohydrate Homeostasis and Metabolic Pathways:.....................................................17
Glycolysis:.................................................................................................................. 17
Red blood cell damage:........................................................................................19
Glycolysis regulation:............................................................................................19
Pathways interacting with glycolysis:....................................................................20
Alcohol Metabolism: (ethanol).......................................................................................... 22
Gluconeogenesis:.............................................................................................................23
Glycogenesis:...................................................................................................................24
Glycogenolysis:................................................................................................................ 25
The balance between storing and using stored glycogen:......................................... 25
Type 1 Diabetes:.............................................................................................................. 26
Type 2 diabetes:............................................................................................................... 27
The Krebs Cycle:..................................................................................................................28
Cycle regulation:.........................................................................................................29
Replenishing Cycle Intermediates:.............................................................................30
Enzymes/ Coenzymes and important vitamins they need:.........................................31
Vitamin deficiency:................................................................................................31
Electron Transport Chain:................................................................................................... 32
Uncoupling of ETC:.................................................................................................... 33
Lipids:................................................................................................................................... 34
Fatty acids:....................................................................................................................... 34
Lipid catabolism:...............................................................................................................38
Ketogenesis:...............................................................................................................40
Lipid anabolism:............................................................................................................... 42
Fatty Acid Synthesis:.................................................................................................. 43
TAG synthesis:........................................................................................................... 43
Lipid transport and lipoproteins:................................................................................. 44
2
, Cholesterol Synthesis:................................................................................................45
Eicosanoids:............................................................................................................... 46
Protein Metabolism:............................................................................................................. 48
Protein energy malnutrition:............................................................................................. 48
Protein Components and Structure:................................................................................. 49
Protein deficiency:............................................................................................................ 51
Protein absorption:........................................................................................................... 51
Biological values:........................................................................................................51
Amino acid catabolism:.................................................................................................... 52
Amino Acids to Keto Acids:........................................................................................ 56
Amino acids to neurotransmitters:.............................................................................. 57
Regulation of Protein metabolism:................................................................................... 58
Protein pathology:............................................................................................................ 59
Nucleotide Metabolism:....................................................................................................... 60
Pyrimidines and purines:.................................................................................................. 60
Nucleic acids:............................................................................................................. 61
Nucleotide biosynthesis:...................................................................................................62
Purine biosynthesis:................................................................................................... 63
Pyramidine biosynthesis:............................................................................................64
Formation of deoxynucleotides:................................................................................. 65
Nucleotide degradation:................................................................................................... 66
Gout:...........................................................................................................................67
Micronutrient metabolism:.................................................................................................. 71
Vitamins:...........................................................................................................................71
Cofactors and Coenzymes:.............................................................................................. 74
Minerals:...........................................................................................................................77
Metabolic regulation:........................................................................................................... 79
Fed state:......................................................................................................................... 79
Early fasting (Normal state):.............................................................................................81
Fasting >24hrs:................................................................................................................ 82
Diabetes type 1:............................................................................................................... 85
Diabetes type 2:............................................................................................................... 87
3
, Enzymes:
Markers for disease:
- Hepatitis (large liver and cell death)
- Myocardial infarction (heart attack atherosclerotic plaque rupture)
- Rhabdomyolysis (skeletal muscle breakdown)
Enzyme localisation:
- Gives a hint and links to its function
Intracellular:
1. Nucleus - DNA/RNA metabolism
2. Mitochondrial - energy reactions
3. Ribosomal - protein synthesis
4. Microsomal - hydroxylation reactions
5. Lysosomal - catabolic reactions
6. Cytoplasmic - glycolysis, lipogenesis
Extracellular:
- Digestive gastrointestinal enzymes
Blood:
- Diagnosis and prognosis
Protein structure:
Primary structure: polypeptides N-C termini linked by peptide bonds
Secondary structure: 𝜶-helixes or 𝜷-sheets
4
