CHAPTER 6: DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH:
Descriptive quantitative research:
-Involves identifying the characteristics of an observed phenomenon or exploring possible
association among two or more phenomena
-Descriptive research examines a situation as it is.
-It does not involve changing to modifying the situation under investigation, nor is it
intended to determine cause-and-effect relationships.
Descriptive Research Designs:
1. Observation studies
2. Correlational research
3. Developmental designs
4. Survey research
5. Face-to-face and telephone interviews
6. Questionnaires.
OBSERVATION STUDIES:
-In qualitative research, researchers rely on personal observations – people or other animal
species as a source of data.
-In quantitative research, observation study is conducted with plants, or involves nonliving
objects (rocks, soil sample) or dynamic physical phenomena (weather patterns, black holes).
-Tends to have a limited prespecified focus.
-When humans are the topic of study, the focus is usually on a certain aspect of behavior
(behavior is quantified in some way).
-In some situations, each occurrence of the behavior is counted to determine its overall
frequencies.
-In other situations, the behavior is rated for accuracy, intensity, maturity or some other
dimension.
-Regardless the researcher strives to be as objective as possible in assessing the behavior being
studied.
-To maintain such objectivity, he/she is likely to use strategies such as:
o Define the behavior being studied in such a precise, concrete manner that the behavior
is easily recognized when it occurs.
o Divide the observation period into small segments and then record whether the
behavior does or does not occur during each segment. (Each segment might be 30
seconds, 5 minutes, 15 minutes, or whatever other time span is suitable for the
behavior being observed.)
, o Use a rating scale to evaluate the behavior in terms of specific dimensions (more about
rating scales later in the chapter)
o Have two or three people rate the same behavior independently, without knowledge of
one another’s ratings.
o Train the rater(s) to use specific criteria when counting or evaluating the behavior, and
continue training until consistent ratings are obtained for any single occurrence of the
behavior.
-A pilot study is essential for ironing out any wrinkles in identifying and classifying the
behaviors or other characteristics under investigation.
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH:
-A correlational study examines the extent to which differences in one characteristic or variable
are associated with differences in one or more other characteristics or variables.
-A correlation exists if, when one variable increases, another variable either increases or
decreases in a somewhat predictable fashion.
-Thus, knowing the value of one variable, enables us to predict the value of the other
variable with some degree of accuracy.
-Researchers gather quantitative data about 2 or more characteristics for a particular group of
people or other appropriate units of study.
-When humans are the focus, data might be test scores, ratings assigned by an expert
observer, or frequencies of certain behaviors.
-Data in animal studies, too, might be frequencies of particular behaviors, but alternatively
they could be fertility rates, metabolic processes, or measures of health and longevity.
-Data in study of plants, inanimate objects, or dynamic physical phenomena might be
measures of growth, chemical reactions, density, temperature, or virtually any other
characteristic that human measurement instruments can assess with some objectivity.
-At least 2 different characteristics are measured in order to determine whether and in what
way these characteristics are interrelated.
-Ultimately, we can never infer a cause-and-effect relationship on the basis of correlation
alone
-Correlation does not, in and of itself indicate causation
-Ideally a good researcher isn’t content to stop at a correlational relationship, because beneath
the correlation may lie some potentially interesting dynamics.
-One way to explore these dynamics is through structural equation modelling (SEM)
-A statistical procedure or follow up of a correlational study.
Descriptive quantitative research:
-Involves identifying the characteristics of an observed phenomenon or exploring possible
association among two or more phenomena
-Descriptive research examines a situation as it is.
-It does not involve changing to modifying the situation under investigation, nor is it
intended to determine cause-and-effect relationships.
Descriptive Research Designs:
1. Observation studies
2. Correlational research
3. Developmental designs
4. Survey research
5. Face-to-face and telephone interviews
6. Questionnaires.
OBSERVATION STUDIES:
-In qualitative research, researchers rely on personal observations – people or other animal
species as a source of data.
-In quantitative research, observation study is conducted with plants, or involves nonliving
objects (rocks, soil sample) or dynamic physical phenomena (weather patterns, black holes).
-Tends to have a limited prespecified focus.
-When humans are the topic of study, the focus is usually on a certain aspect of behavior
(behavior is quantified in some way).
-In some situations, each occurrence of the behavior is counted to determine its overall
frequencies.
-In other situations, the behavior is rated for accuracy, intensity, maturity or some other
dimension.
-Regardless the researcher strives to be as objective as possible in assessing the behavior being
studied.
-To maintain such objectivity, he/she is likely to use strategies such as:
o Define the behavior being studied in such a precise, concrete manner that the behavior
is easily recognized when it occurs.
o Divide the observation period into small segments and then record whether the
behavior does or does not occur during each segment. (Each segment might be 30
seconds, 5 minutes, 15 minutes, or whatever other time span is suitable for the
behavior being observed.)
, o Use a rating scale to evaluate the behavior in terms of specific dimensions (more about
rating scales later in the chapter)
o Have two or three people rate the same behavior independently, without knowledge of
one another’s ratings.
o Train the rater(s) to use specific criteria when counting or evaluating the behavior, and
continue training until consistent ratings are obtained for any single occurrence of the
behavior.
-A pilot study is essential for ironing out any wrinkles in identifying and classifying the
behaviors or other characteristics under investigation.
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH:
-A correlational study examines the extent to which differences in one characteristic or variable
are associated with differences in one or more other characteristics or variables.
-A correlation exists if, when one variable increases, another variable either increases or
decreases in a somewhat predictable fashion.
-Thus, knowing the value of one variable, enables us to predict the value of the other
variable with some degree of accuracy.
-Researchers gather quantitative data about 2 or more characteristics for a particular group of
people or other appropriate units of study.
-When humans are the focus, data might be test scores, ratings assigned by an expert
observer, or frequencies of certain behaviors.
-Data in animal studies, too, might be frequencies of particular behaviors, but alternatively
they could be fertility rates, metabolic processes, or measures of health and longevity.
-Data in study of plants, inanimate objects, or dynamic physical phenomena might be
measures of growth, chemical reactions, density, temperature, or virtually any other
characteristic that human measurement instruments can assess with some objectivity.
-At least 2 different characteristics are measured in order to determine whether and in what
way these characteristics are interrelated.
-Ultimately, we can never infer a cause-and-effect relationship on the basis of correlation
alone
-Correlation does not, in and of itself indicate causation
-Ideally a good researcher isn’t content to stop at a correlational relationship, because beneath
the correlation may lie some potentially interesting dynamics.
-One way to explore these dynamics is through structural equation modelling (SEM)
-A statistical procedure or follow up of a correlational study.
