Criminology 310
Section A: Criminology Theories
Study unit 1: Role of Theories
1. Structure of theories
What is a theory? It is basic assumptions & assertions attempting to describe,
predict, explain & control subject matter
- Criminology theories often lack certainty making them eligible for practical
application (this is known as theoretical abstractness)
- Criminologists view theoretical abstractness positively: assertions in theories
cannot be limited to set time & place (must be applicable across different
countries & time periods)
2. Assumptions & assertions: building blocks of theories
Criminology theories ask: what is assumed about humans & their behavior?
Position is known as determinism = underlying force indicates type of
determinism
Eg. theory proposing that biological force of mental illness is culprit is rooted in
biological determinism
Assumptions: Assertions:
= not subject to testing or modification = subject to testing or modification
- Required to accept or reject = if assertions are incapable of evaluation in real
word context, no longer considered theory but an
= form part of theory’s core belief system ideology
= Understood & accepted before consider = referred to as propositions: generalized
assertions statements about relationships of things
- Verifiable propositions (receive consistent
support when tested) = laws
- Propositions subject to testing = hypotheses
1
, 3. Strategies for scientific enterprise:
When crime is explained using theory: application of scientific enterprise is required
Theory = starting point for
Deductive research Inductive research
= theory building studies
= theory testing studies
= focus on: providing findings that
= focus on: researching questions
may constitute theory
or testing hypotheses from
existing theory
- Criminologists conducting deductive or inductive research are guided by
research design: aids researching process by answering important questions
eg. Why are we doing the research? Over what period will we conduct the
study?
- Researches usually adopt single mode of observation:
Collection of qualitative data= interpretations of observations aiming to
express object of study’s basic nature (non-numerical examinations)
Collection of quantitative data= manipulations of observations aiming to
express object of study in terms of accurate numerical values
(numerical examinations)
4. Goals of theory
4 elements of definition of theory that encompass goals:
I. Description What is it?
- Theory’s findings correlate with what is known about crime & criminals
- Descriptions must be a. accurate b. reliable c. valid
II. Explanation Why is it?
- Deeper look into problem of crime (in relation to simple description)
- Provide reasoning for why crime exists
2
,III. Prediction When is it?
- Emphasis on element of time: identifying when something will occur based on
conditions conducive to its occurrence
IV. Control
- Criminologists often focus on creation of knowledge for own sake @ expense
of pursuit of applied knowledge
eg. Nuclear arms race: scientists provided theoretical basis for nuclear weapons but
failed to provide policies for their use
- Criminologists need to be involved in ways that resulting knowledge serves to
control behavior
5. Challenges for theory testing & theory building
Correlation v Causation
Correlation:
= ties 2 variable measures of events together
- Events are correlated if presence or absence of event A causes change in
event B
eg. Poverty & birth rates are closely related, but low income does not cause
pregnancy
- In same way: poverty is linked to crime but is not cause
Causation:
= refers to anything that produces an effect
In order for an event to be seen as cause of another it must meet 3 requirements:
I. Alleged cause happens before effect (time-order sequencing)
II. Correlation must exist (correlated variables categorized as strong or weak)
III. Absence of spurious link between alleged cause & effect
- Spuriousness: refers to observed relationship between 2 variables due to
influence of 3rd variable
3
, Broken windows Crime
= observed correlation
Explanation: crime in neighborhood surrounding building will increase @ rate that
approximates that of windows breaking in building
Broken windows Crime
= spurious interpretation
Explanation: broken windows caused crime
Community malaise
Broken windows Crime
= casual relationship
Explanation: both broken windows & crime share common cause: community
malaise
- Same sense of disconnectedness within neighborhood that caused
community members to fix or not fix windows led to increased crime
Tautological trap:
[causal ordering cannot be assumed]
- How does tautology occur? Variable studied is stated as cause or explanation
4
Section A: Criminology Theories
Study unit 1: Role of Theories
1. Structure of theories
What is a theory? It is basic assumptions & assertions attempting to describe,
predict, explain & control subject matter
- Criminology theories often lack certainty making them eligible for practical
application (this is known as theoretical abstractness)
- Criminologists view theoretical abstractness positively: assertions in theories
cannot be limited to set time & place (must be applicable across different
countries & time periods)
2. Assumptions & assertions: building blocks of theories
Criminology theories ask: what is assumed about humans & their behavior?
Position is known as determinism = underlying force indicates type of
determinism
Eg. theory proposing that biological force of mental illness is culprit is rooted in
biological determinism
Assumptions: Assertions:
= not subject to testing or modification = subject to testing or modification
- Required to accept or reject = if assertions are incapable of evaluation in real
word context, no longer considered theory but an
= form part of theory’s core belief system ideology
= Understood & accepted before consider = referred to as propositions: generalized
assertions statements about relationships of things
- Verifiable propositions (receive consistent
support when tested) = laws
- Propositions subject to testing = hypotheses
1
, 3. Strategies for scientific enterprise:
When crime is explained using theory: application of scientific enterprise is required
Theory = starting point for
Deductive research Inductive research
= theory building studies
= theory testing studies
= focus on: providing findings that
= focus on: researching questions
may constitute theory
or testing hypotheses from
existing theory
- Criminologists conducting deductive or inductive research are guided by
research design: aids researching process by answering important questions
eg. Why are we doing the research? Over what period will we conduct the
study?
- Researches usually adopt single mode of observation:
Collection of qualitative data= interpretations of observations aiming to
express object of study’s basic nature (non-numerical examinations)
Collection of quantitative data= manipulations of observations aiming to
express object of study in terms of accurate numerical values
(numerical examinations)
4. Goals of theory
4 elements of definition of theory that encompass goals:
I. Description What is it?
- Theory’s findings correlate with what is known about crime & criminals
- Descriptions must be a. accurate b. reliable c. valid
II. Explanation Why is it?
- Deeper look into problem of crime (in relation to simple description)
- Provide reasoning for why crime exists
2
,III. Prediction When is it?
- Emphasis on element of time: identifying when something will occur based on
conditions conducive to its occurrence
IV. Control
- Criminologists often focus on creation of knowledge for own sake @ expense
of pursuit of applied knowledge
eg. Nuclear arms race: scientists provided theoretical basis for nuclear weapons but
failed to provide policies for their use
- Criminologists need to be involved in ways that resulting knowledge serves to
control behavior
5. Challenges for theory testing & theory building
Correlation v Causation
Correlation:
= ties 2 variable measures of events together
- Events are correlated if presence or absence of event A causes change in
event B
eg. Poverty & birth rates are closely related, but low income does not cause
pregnancy
- In same way: poverty is linked to crime but is not cause
Causation:
= refers to anything that produces an effect
In order for an event to be seen as cause of another it must meet 3 requirements:
I. Alleged cause happens before effect (time-order sequencing)
II. Correlation must exist (correlated variables categorized as strong or weak)
III. Absence of spurious link between alleged cause & effect
- Spuriousness: refers to observed relationship between 2 variables due to
influence of 3rd variable
3
, Broken windows Crime
= observed correlation
Explanation: crime in neighborhood surrounding building will increase @ rate that
approximates that of windows breaking in building
Broken windows Crime
= spurious interpretation
Explanation: broken windows caused crime
Community malaise
Broken windows Crime
= casual relationship
Explanation: both broken windows & crime share common cause: community
malaise
- Same sense of disconnectedness within neighborhood that caused
community members to fix or not fix windows led to increased crime
Tautological trap:
[causal ordering cannot be assumed]
- How does tautology occur? Variable studied is stated as cause or explanation
4
