SOUTH AFRICA’S TRANSITION TO DEMOCRACY
How did SA emerge as a democracy from the crises of the 80s and 90s?
South Africa’s transition from apartheid to the post-apartheid state was not a smooth one. There was
increasing violence in the 1990s, particularly between the ANC and IFP who were being covertly supported by
the apartheid government. Negotiations were often halted for various reasons, and non-participation and
clashing agendas threatened these negotiations. There was, effectively, a civil war occurring in the townships.
Only through a series of compromises and some brilliant negotiation by individuals was compromise reached.
These compromises did not always bring peace or satisfaction to all parties, but they allowed the GNU to come
into being. April 1994 is not the end of the story – violence, resistance, compromise, and lack thereof
continued.
By 1989 it was clear that the apartheid regime was weakened – a complex combination of internal resistance,
international pressure, and changes in the global political landscape drove the regime to begin a negotiation
process with anti-apartheid organizations. As can be expected from groups that had widely divergent ideals
and visions for the future of South Africa, the negotiation process was fraught with tensions. It is important to
consider how the crises of the 1990s were managed.
THE CRISIS OF APARTHEID IN THE 1980S:
There was increasing internal pressure on the NP government to put an end to apartheid. The superficial
solutions that Botha put forward under the moniker “Total Strategy” did not in any way quieten resistance to
apartheid. Organizations such as the UDF, ECC, trade unions, and other civil society organizations continued to
mount resistance. Critically, in 1989, the MDM launched a nation-wide campaign of civil disobedience which is
known as the Defiance Campaign. In addition to this, a global economic downturn put the government under
pressure and gave impetus to the struggle against apartheid. In this economic situation, apartheid
infrastructure became prohibitively expensive to maintain.
What were the pressures on apartheid South Africa from the 1980s?
These pressures were economic and political, and came from both inside (resistance and terrorism) and
outside the country (opposition and economic sanctions).
Economic pressures:
Reformers inside South Africa joined forces with overseas organizations to put pressure on the
government for change. Business and professional delegations met with ANC leaders in Africa and Europe
(eg: Gavin Relly of Anglo-American met with Oliver Tambo in Zambia; and opposition politician, Van Zyl
Slabbert, met with the ANC in Dakar). A “Release Mandela” campaign was launched both in South Africa
and overseas.
Afrikaans businessmen and academics (from Stellenbosch University) were also calling for the scrapping of
Apartheid.
The UN described Apartheid as “a crime against humanity” and had called on its members to apply
sanctions against South Africa.
Sanctions and boycotts played an important role in the ending of apartheid (despite the fact that
Maggie Thatcher in the UK and Ronald Reagan in the USA were opposed to them).
The NP was under intense pressure from the international community for reform.
After Botha filed to promise meaningful reform in his “crossing the Rubicon” speech of 1985,
choosing instead a defiant isolationist position. A financial crisis began.
In 1985 the Chase Manhattan Bank refused to lend any more money to SA.
Other major banks followed suit, causing a financial crisis (the rand collapsed), as the temporary
closure of the JHB stock exchange.
International companies continued to withdraw investments from the country (eg: British Barclays).
Companies such as IBM, Kodak, and Pepsi-Cola shut down their SA production (277 companies in total).
This aggravated the economic crisis.
In 1985 the Commonwealth Accord recommended sanctions against SA (eg: sale and export of oil), and
the following year more sanctions were suggested.
In 1986, the EEC imposed financial sanctions of SA – bans on investments and loans.
, 1986: the USA passed an Anti-Apartheid Act to encourage US firms to take money out of SA. US
Congress banned all new investments and loans to SA, and restricted the importing of SA products (eg:
coal and agricultural goods). SAA planes were not allowed to fly to the USA (or Australia).
A 7-member group from Commonwealth countries (the Eminent Persons Group) was sent to SA in 1985
and issued a report outlining the need for reform in SA.
They also called for increased sanctions after Botha allowed fresh raids into Zambia, Botswana,
and Zimbabwe.
Black unemployment in the townships doubled – by 1987, 25% of black workers were unemployed.
This caused more unrest in the country.
A severe drought led to poor maize harvests, forcing the state to come to the assistance of farmers, and
leaving the state with huge debt.
The price of food thus increased.
A drop in the gold price at the start of the world-wide recession led to a reduced economic growth rate in
the country (fallen from $800 an ounce in 1980 to $300 an ounce).
SA’s growth rate was among the worst in the world in 1987, and the inflation rate was the 3 rd highest
among the industrialized nations.
The government’s foreign debt increased from 20% to 46%, and the country became dependent on loans
to pay off old debts.
Within the southern African region, various governments formed the South African Development Co-
ordinating Committee (SADCC) and these states provided bases for the armed struggle.
The effect of sanctions:
The issue of sanctions divided South Africans, both black and white, with the ANC, the Anglican Church (eg: Desmond Tutu),
and COSATU supporting it. On the other hand, businesses, most white South Africans, and Inkatha did not. The issue
brought out extremists on both sides of the political spectrum.
Obviously the poorest (the black people), were hit the hardest in the wake of unemployment and the depression in SA, and
in the increasing levels of violence and unrest that this would cause. But many argued that this was a price worth paying for
freedom and the fall of the apartheid government (which would hopefully follow the collapse of the economy).
Sanctions hit SA at a very vulnerable moment. Historians have argued that the worst problem the country faced was not
keeping the lid on the struggle, but rather in keeping the economy stable. The economy needed to grow at a rate of 5% per
year in order to meet its debts, and this was impossible with the massive sanctions in disinvestments.
Political pressures:
The UDF, COSATU, and various civic organizations inside SA mounted a massive, organized, and effective
resistance campaign against the state in the 80s, forcing the government onto the backfoot of repression.
Thus, the country had become a political state which caused even more criticism and opposition.
The State of Emergency in response to the Township Uprising of 1984 saw the state using
excessive force and brutality against people.
The media was also silenced.
Many organizations such as the NECC and ECC were banned and many UDF members were
arrested and charged with treason.
These repressive measures increased internal resistance and international opposition.
Thus, the ANC in exile had become more organized and had intensified their armed struggle against the
state.
MK launched high profile attacks on targets such as the Koeberg nuclear station in Cape Town,
and the Durban dockyards.
By the late 80s, the MK had bases all over SA, and had stepped up its attacks on police and
government offices.
Mandela was refusing any offers for conditional release that the government was secretly trying to make
with him since 1985.
Under the leadership of prominent individuals such as Mbeki, Tambo, and Slovo, the ANC in exile (in
Lusaka, Zambia), had also gained the respect of the international community, as well as many SA political
and business leaders, who were applying pressure on the SA government (eg: Anglo-American corporation
under Gavin Relly met ANC in 1987 in Lusaka).
Thus, many already regarded the ANC as the legitimate government-in-exile of SA.
How did SA emerge as a democracy from the crises of the 80s and 90s?
South Africa’s transition from apartheid to the post-apartheid state was not a smooth one. There was
increasing violence in the 1990s, particularly between the ANC and IFP who were being covertly supported by
the apartheid government. Negotiations were often halted for various reasons, and non-participation and
clashing agendas threatened these negotiations. There was, effectively, a civil war occurring in the townships.
Only through a series of compromises and some brilliant negotiation by individuals was compromise reached.
These compromises did not always bring peace or satisfaction to all parties, but they allowed the GNU to come
into being. April 1994 is not the end of the story – violence, resistance, compromise, and lack thereof
continued.
By 1989 it was clear that the apartheid regime was weakened – a complex combination of internal resistance,
international pressure, and changes in the global political landscape drove the regime to begin a negotiation
process with anti-apartheid organizations. As can be expected from groups that had widely divergent ideals
and visions for the future of South Africa, the negotiation process was fraught with tensions. It is important to
consider how the crises of the 1990s were managed.
THE CRISIS OF APARTHEID IN THE 1980S:
There was increasing internal pressure on the NP government to put an end to apartheid. The superficial
solutions that Botha put forward under the moniker “Total Strategy” did not in any way quieten resistance to
apartheid. Organizations such as the UDF, ECC, trade unions, and other civil society organizations continued to
mount resistance. Critically, in 1989, the MDM launched a nation-wide campaign of civil disobedience which is
known as the Defiance Campaign. In addition to this, a global economic downturn put the government under
pressure and gave impetus to the struggle against apartheid. In this economic situation, apartheid
infrastructure became prohibitively expensive to maintain.
What were the pressures on apartheid South Africa from the 1980s?
These pressures were economic and political, and came from both inside (resistance and terrorism) and
outside the country (opposition and economic sanctions).
Economic pressures:
Reformers inside South Africa joined forces with overseas organizations to put pressure on the
government for change. Business and professional delegations met with ANC leaders in Africa and Europe
(eg: Gavin Relly of Anglo-American met with Oliver Tambo in Zambia; and opposition politician, Van Zyl
Slabbert, met with the ANC in Dakar). A “Release Mandela” campaign was launched both in South Africa
and overseas.
Afrikaans businessmen and academics (from Stellenbosch University) were also calling for the scrapping of
Apartheid.
The UN described Apartheid as “a crime against humanity” and had called on its members to apply
sanctions against South Africa.
Sanctions and boycotts played an important role in the ending of apartheid (despite the fact that
Maggie Thatcher in the UK and Ronald Reagan in the USA were opposed to them).
The NP was under intense pressure from the international community for reform.
After Botha filed to promise meaningful reform in his “crossing the Rubicon” speech of 1985,
choosing instead a defiant isolationist position. A financial crisis began.
In 1985 the Chase Manhattan Bank refused to lend any more money to SA.
Other major banks followed suit, causing a financial crisis (the rand collapsed), as the temporary
closure of the JHB stock exchange.
International companies continued to withdraw investments from the country (eg: British Barclays).
Companies such as IBM, Kodak, and Pepsi-Cola shut down their SA production (277 companies in total).
This aggravated the economic crisis.
In 1985 the Commonwealth Accord recommended sanctions against SA (eg: sale and export of oil), and
the following year more sanctions were suggested.
In 1986, the EEC imposed financial sanctions of SA – bans on investments and loans.
, 1986: the USA passed an Anti-Apartheid Act to encourage US firms to take money out of SA. US
Congress banned all new investments and loans to SA, and restricted the importing of SA products (eg:
coal and agricultural goods). SAA planes were not allowed to fly to the USA (or Australia).
A 7-member group from Commonwealth countries (the Eminent Persons Group) was sent to SA in 1985
and issued a report outlining the need for reform in SA.
They also called for increased sanctions after Botha allowed fresh raids into Zambia, Botswana,
and Zimbabwe.
Black unemployment in the townships doubled – by 1987, 25% of black workers were unemployed.
This caused more unrest in the country.
A severe drought led to poor maize harvests, forcing the state to come to the assistance of farmers, and
leaving the state with huge debt.
The price of food thus increased.
A drop in the gold price at the start of the world-wide recession led to a reduced economic growth rate in
the country (fallen from $800 an ounce in 1980 to $300 an ounce).
SA’s growth rate was among the worst in the world in 1987, and the inflation rate was the 3 rd highest
among the industrialized nations.
The government’s foreign debt increased from 20% to 46%, and the country became dependent on loans
to pay off old debts.
Within the southern African region, various governments formed the South African Development Co-
ordinating Committee (SADCC) and these states provided bases for the armed struggle.
The effect of sanctions:
The issue of sanctions divided South Africans, both black and white, with the ANC, the Anglican Church (eg: Desmond Tutu),
and COSATU supporting it. On the other hand, businesses, most white South Africans, and Inkatha did not. The issue
brought out extremists on both sides of the political spectrum.
Obviously the poorest (the black people), were hit the hardest in the wake of unemployment and the depression in SA, and
in the increasing levels of violence and unrest that this would cause. But many argued that this was a price worth paying for
freedom and the fall of the apartheid government (which would hopefully follow the collapse of the economy).
Sanctions hit SA at a very vulnerable moment. Historians have argued that the worst problem the country faced was not
keeping the lid on the struggle, but rather in keeping the economy stable. The economy needed to grow at a rate of 5% per
year in order to meet its debts, and this was impossible with the massive sanctions in disinvestments.
Political pressures:
The UDF, COSATU, and various civic organizations inside SA mounted a massive, organized, and effective
resistance campaign against the state in the 80s, forcing the government onto the backfoot of repression.
Thus, the country had become a political state which caused even more criticism and opposition.
The State of Emergency in response to the Township Uprising of 1984 saw the state using
excessive force and brutality against people.
The media was also silenced.
Many organizations such as the NECC and ECC were banned and many UDF members were
arrested and charged with treason.
These repressive measures increased internal resistance and international opposition.
Thus, the ANC in exile had become more organized and had intensified their armed struggle against the
state.
MK launched high profile attacks on targets such as the Koeberg nuclear station in Cape Town,
and the Durban dockyards.
By the late 80s, the MK had bases all over SA, and had stepped up its attacks on police and
government offices.
Mandela was refusing any offers for conditional release that the government was secretly trying to make
with him since 1985.
Under the leadership of prominent individuals such as Mbeki, Tambo, and Slovo, the ANC in exile (in
Lusaka, Zambia), had also gained the respect of the international community, as well as many SA political
and business leaders, who were applying pressure on the SA government (eg: Anglo-American corporation
under Gavin Relly met ANC in 1987 in Lusaka).
Thus, many already regarded the ANC as the legitimate government-in-exile of SA.
