Topic 4: Civil Resistance in South Africa (70s & 80s)
Unit 4.1: The Challenge of Black Consciousness to Apartheid
The Apartheid State in 70s & 80s
o Gov suppressed opposition hectically. After Sharpeville, they banned ANC & PAC (Pan-Africanist
Congress). The state became more militarized (lots of money spent on weapons and increased state
control of media etc, police had more power).
o Gov tried to control urbanization by forcing black ppl into homelessness and gave them the illusion
that they could govern themselves, but they were totally dependent on the gov.
o 70s: Economy declined bc Middle East countries raised oil prices (1973) + lack of skilled Labour bc of
Bantu Education. Strikes were held and they got better wages + the right to form independent black
trade unions
o 1975: Mozam (under the Frelimo Party) + Angola (under MPLA) got independence from Portuguese
which allowed PAC & ANC to establish bases near SA + gave South Africans hope.
o 80s -> PW Botha = ‘total strategy’ which attempted to end resistance and keep the apartheid gov in
power: ‘separate development’ which allowed homelands “independence” was dropped, movement
of black people was strictly controlled (could live in cities) and they had limited trade union rights,
segregation relaxed slightly, and some multiracial private schools could operate. (still had no political
rights but gov hoped this would make them lose interest in radical reforms). Army was given
increased control to enforce control in townships + attacked ANC guerrilla bases.
The Opposition
o After being banned the ANC & PAC set up armed wings (MK & Poqo, respectively). Leaders were sent
out of the country to set up headquarters elsewhere and didn’t have much influence in SA bc they
couldn’t get through the SADF + white-controlled countries in the north. Their camps were isolated
and didn’t have resources.
o United Democratic Front [1993] provided a platform for people within SA to fight the system.
Nature & Aims of Black Consciousness
o ‘Attitude of mind’ -> ‘black’ was used to challenge ‘nonwhite’ -> most supporters were students
o It defined black people as anyone who was oppressed by apartheid (Indians and coloureds too –
created a new unified identity)
o Main aims:
1. Increase self respect & confidence of black ppl
2. Promote pride in black culture, identity & history
3. To stop working with white liberals and encourage them to educate other white ppl
4. Promote unity of black ppl by getting them to fight against apartheid
o Encouraged by all the African countries gaining indep from colonialism
o Driving force: South African Students’ Organization (SASO) [1968] under Steve Biko
Steve Biko
o Born: King William’s town in Eastern a Cape 1946. Got involved in National Union of South African
Students (NUSAS) but it was dominated by whites so he broke away and formed SASO bc he believed
black ppl should lead their own resistance instead of relying on white help (rejected non-racialism).
Influenced by Frantz Fanon who believed that only violence could get people freedom from
oppression.
o Biko believed black ppl had to free themselves from the psychological oppression of being treated as
inferior in order to gain psychological, physical and political power.
, The Black Consciousness Movement (blanket term for various organizations)
o 1972: Black People’s Convention (BCP)
o 1971: South African Students Movement (SASM) -> Soweto students formed it to encourage students
to form representative councils where people could talk about issues.
o 1973: Black Allied Workers’ Union
o Black Communities Project was formed to help black ppl help themselves -> legal advice, health
projects, cultural forums, literacy campaigns etc.
o Initially the gov loved it bc it supported the idea of black ppl being separate and it seemed more like
a philosophy than a political movement that could do damage. However, they made their anti-gov
feelings known so gov expelled students and arrested leaders of these organizations
1976 Soweto Uprising
o Students in black schools were angry about the inferior Bantu Education system. Many joined SASM
& Black Consciousness Organisation. SASM allowed students to talk about issues and had a
newspaper, Thrust, so this movement could spread easily. Gov banned it and arrested leaders which
made SASM members consider more radical approaches (linking up with ANC)
o 1976: gov wanted certain subjects to be taught in Afrikaans which made ppl boycott these subjects.
13 June 1976, the Action Committee was formed – later called the Soweto Students’
Representative Council (SSRC) which planned a mass demonstration march to protest this. Police
overreacted and fired on students which set off a year of protesting = Soweto Uprising. Started as a
protest against education and turned into a general protest against apartheid in the form of boycotts,
clashes with police, destroying gov property & stay-aways. Over 12 000 students left SA to join the
ANC & receive military training who were used by the ANC & PAC in sabotage missions.
o Steve Biko was arrested and died in prison (1977) bc of brutal maltreatment by police.
Legacy of Black Consciousness in SA politics
o Black Consciousness organizations were banned in 1976. The Azanian People’s Organization (AZAPO)
shared their political ideas and had some support but didn’t go very far. Many people who supported
Black Consciousness joined the ANC. BC created a new sense of pride and assertiveness amongst
black people.
o Black Theology (thought of by Christian theologians): emphasized the need to resist apartheid and
argued that Christians should be political activists.
o Gave way for African-led organizations like the Zanempilo Community Health Clinic which was aimed
at helping poorer ppl in rural areas.
o Some of their leaders became important people: Mamphela Ramphele = director of World Bank +
founded Agang, Barney Pityana = head of Human Rights Commission + principle of UNISA, Tito
Mboweni = governor of Reserve Bank.
Unit 4.1: The Challenge of Black Consciousness to Apartheid
The Apartheid State in 70s & 80s
o Gov suppressed opposition hectically. After Sharpeville, they banned ANC & PAC (Pan-Africanist
Congress). The state became more militarized (lots of money spent on weapons and increased state
control of media etc, police had more power).
o Gov tried to control urbanization by forcing black ppl into homelessness and gave them the illusion
that they could govern themselves, but they were totally dependent on the gov.
o 70s: Economy declined bc Middle East countries raised oil prices (1973) + lack of skilled Labour bc of
Bantu Education. Strikes were held and they got better wages + the right to form independent black
trade unions
o 1975: Mozam (under the Frelimo Party) + Angola (under MPLA) got independence from Portuguese
which allowed PAC & ANC to establish bases near SA + gave South Africans hope.
o 80s -> PW Botha = ‘total strategy’ which attempted to end resistance and keep the apartheid gov in
power: ‘separate development’ which allowed homelands “independence” was dropped, movement
of black people was strictly controlled (could live in cities) and they had limited trade union rights,
segregation relaxed slightly, and some multiracial private schools could operate. (still had no political
rights but gov hoped this would make them lose interest in radical reforms). Army was given
increased control to enforce control in townships + attacked ANC guerrilla bases.
The Opposition
o After being banned the ANC & PAC set up armed wings (MK & Poqo, respectively). Leaders were sent
out of the country to set up headquarters elsewhere and didn’t have much influence in SA bc they
couldn’t get through the SADF + white-controlled countries in the north. Their camps were isolated
and didn’t have resources.
o United Democratic Front [1993] provided a platform for people within SA to fight the system.
Nature & Aims of Black Consciousness
o ‘Attitude of mind’ -> ‘black’ was used to challenge ‘nonwhite’ -> most supporters were students
o It defined black people as anyone who was oppressed by apartheid (Indians and coloureds too –
created a new unified identity)
o Main aims:
1. Increase self respect & confidence of black ppl
2. Promote pride in black culture, identity & history
3. To stop working with white liberals and encourage them to educate other white ppl
4. Promote unity of black ppl by getting them to fight against apartheid
o Encouraged by all the African countries gaining indep from colonialism
o Driving force: South African Students’ Organization (SASO) [1968] under Steve Biko
Steve Biko
o Born: King William’s town in Eastern a Cape 1946. Got involved in National Union of South African
Students (NUSAS) but it was dominated by whites so he broke away and formed SASO bc he believed
black ppl should lead their own resistance instead of relying on white help (rejected non-racialism).
Influenced by Frantz Fanon who believed that only violence could get people freedom from
oppression.
o Biko believed black ppl had to free themselves from the psychological oppression of being treated as
inferior in order to gain psychological, physical and political power.
, The Black Consciousness Movement (blanket term for various organizations)
o 1972: Black People’s Convention (BCP)
o 1971: South African Students Movement (SASM) -> Soweto students formed it to encourage students
to form representative councils where people could talk about issues.
o 1973: Black Allied Workers’ Union
o Black Communities Project was formed to help black ppl help themselves -> legal advice, health
projects, cultural forums, literacy campaigns etc.
o Initially the gov loved it bc it supported the idea of black ppl being separate and it seemed more like
a philosophy than a political movement that could do damage. However, they made their anti-gov
feelings known so gov expelled students and arrested leaders of these organizations
1976 Soweto Uprising
o Students in black schools were angry about the inferior Bantu Education system. Many joined SASM
& Black Consciousness Organisation. SASM allowed students to talk about issues and had a
newspaper, Thrust, so this movement could spread easily. Gov banned it and arrested leaders which
made SASM members consider more radical approaches (linking up with ANC)
o 1976: gov wanted certain subjects to be taught in Afrikaans which made ppl boycott these subjects.
13 June 1976, the Action Committee was formed – later called the Soweto Students’
Representative Council (SSRC) which planned a mass demonstration march to protest this. Police
overreacted and fired on students which set off a year of protesting = Soweto Uprising. Started as a
protest against education and turned into a general protest against apartheid in the form of boycotts,
clashes with police, destroying gov property & stay-aways. Over 12 000 students left SA to join the
ANC & receive military training who were used by the ANC & PAC in sabotage missions.
o Steve Biko was arrested and died in prison (1977) bc of brutal maltreatment by police.
Legacy of Black Consciousness in SA politics
o Black Consciousness organizations were banned in 1976. The Azanian People’s Organization (AZAPO)
shared their political ideas and had some support but didn’t go very far. Many people who supported
Black Consciousness joined the ANC. BC created a new sense of pride and assertiveness amongst
black people.
o Black Theology (thought of by Christian theologians): emphasized the need to resist apartheid and
argued that Christians should be political activists.
o Gave way for African-led organizations like the Zanempilo Community Health Clinic which was aimed
at helping poorer ppl in rural areas.
o Some of their leaders became important people: Mamphela Ramphele = director of World Bank +
founded Agang, Barney Pityana = head of Human Rights Commission + principle of UNISA, Tito
Mboweni = governor of Reserve Bank.
