PUB3707 ASSIGNMENT 2 2026
DUE AUGUST 2026
QUESTION 1: EVALUATING CLAPPER'S VIEWS ON ETHICS FOR PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT
1. INTRODUCTION
This essay evaluates the main themes of Professor VA Clapper's views on ethics for
public administration and management in the twenty-first century. Clapper's work
explores the foundational ideas of ethics and morality, the importance of
professionalism and ethical codes, and how the understanding of public sector ethics
has changed from the twentieth to the twenty-first century.
2. CLAPPER'S VIEWS ON ETHICS AND MORALITY
Clapper sees ethics and morality as the very foundation of public administration. He
defines Ethics as the study of morality, which involves using reason to determine if
actions are right or wrong according to society's standards (Clapper, 2014,
p.5). Morality, on the other hand, refers to the values and conventions a society holds
as important, reflected in its laws and rules (Clapper, 2014, p.6).
A key part of Clapper's view is the importance of an official's personal morality. Every
public official is first an individual with their own moral compass, shaped by their
community and upbringing (Clapper, 2014, p.6). This personal morality is vital because
no set of rules can cover every situation. Public officials often have to use their own
judgement and discretion, and without a strong personal morality, they are more likely to
abuse their power or be manipulated (Clapper, 2014, pp.6-7).
, However, Clapper is careful to point out that personal morality in public service is not
about personal righteousness. Instead, its true value is in serving the public good and
improving service delivery. It must be utilitarian, focused on the welfare of others rather
than self-centred (Clapper, 2014, p.7).
3. CLAPPER'S VIEWS ON PROFESSIONALISM AND ETHICAL CODES
Clapper argues that professional competence is a crucial part of ethical conduct. He
cites the view that many instances of corruption in government are committed by
political appointees without public service experience, suggesting that incompetence is
linked to unethical behaviour. An incompetent official can be seen as abusing their
power (Clapper, 2014, pp.7-8). Professionalism equips officials to make informed
decisions, especially when rules are unclear or non-existent (Clapper, 2014, p.8).
Regarding ethical codes of conduct, Clapper sees their role as twofold. First, they help
to harness and steer an official's personal morality and professional skills towards the
goals of the public service (Clapper, 2014, p.9). Ideally, a public official's personal
morality should be compatible with these codes so they can internalise them. If there is
a conflict, an official may face a difficult choice: follow the code against their personal
values or disobey the code to stay true to their own morality (Clapper, 2014, p.10).
Clapper also makes a distinction between professional ethical codes (for specific
professions like doctors or lawyers) and public service codes of conduct. He notes that
many public servants belong to recognised professions and thus must follow multiple
codes (Clapper, 2014, p.10). This highlights the complexity of ethics in the public sector.
4. CLAPPER'S VIEWS ON PUBLIC SECTOR ETHICS IN THE TWENTIETH AND
TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY
Clapper's work clearly contrasts the public sector ethics of the twentieth century with
what is needed for the twenty-first century. The table below summarises this
comparison (Clapper, 2014, p.13).
DUE AUGUST 2026
QUESTION 1: EVALUATING CLAPPER'S VIEWS ON ETHICS FOR PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT
1. INTRODUCTION
This essay evaluates the main themes of Professor VA Clapper's views on ethics for
public administration and management in the twenty-first century. Clapper's work
explores the foundational ideas of ethics and morality, the importance of
professionalism and ethical codes, and how the understanding of public sector ethics
has changed from the twentieth to the twenty-first century.
2. CLAPPER'S VIEWS ON ETHICS AND MORALITY
Clapper sees ethics and morality as the very foundation of public administration. He
defines Ethics as the study of morality, which involves using reason to determine if
actions are right or wrong according to society's standards (Clapper, 2014,
p.5). Morality, on the other hand, refers to the values and conventions a society holds
as important, reflected in its laws and rules (Clapper, 2014, p.6).
A key part of Clapper's view is the importance of an official's personal morality. Every
public official is first an individual with their own moral compass, shaped by their
community and upbringing (Clapper, 2014, p.6). This personal morality is vital because
no set of rules can cover every situation. Public officials often have to use their own
judgement and discretion, and without a strong personal morality, they are more likely to
abuse their power or be manipulated (Clapper, 2014, pp.6-7).
, However, Clapper is careful to point out that personal morality in public service is not
about personal righteousness. Instead, its true value is in serving the public good and
improving service delivery. It must be utilitarian, focused on the welfare of others rather
than self-centred (Clapper, 2014, p.7).
3. CLAPPER'S VIEWS ON PROFESSIONALISM AND ETHICAL CODES
Clapper argues that professional competence is a crucial part of ethical conduct. He
cites the view that many instances of corruption in government are committed by
political appointees without public service experience, suggesting that incompetence is
linked to unethical behaviour. An incompetent official can be seen as abusing their
power (Clapper, 2014, pp.7-8). Professionalism equips officials to make informed
decisions, especially when rules are unclear or non-existent (Clapper, 2014, p.8).
Regarding ethical codes of conduct, Clapper sees their role as twofold. First, they help
to harness and steer an official's personal morality and professional skills towards the
goals of the public service (Clapper, 2014, p.9). Ideally, a public official's personal
morality should be compatible with these codes so they can internalise them. If there is
a conflict, an official may face a difficult choice: follow the code against their personal
values or disobey the code to stay true to their own morality (Clapper, 2014, p.10).
Clapper also makes a distinction between professional ethical codes (for specific
professions like doctors or lawyers) and public service codes of conduct. He notes that
many public servants belong to recognised professions and thus must follow multiple
codes (Clapper, 2014, p.10). This highlights the complexity of ethics in the public sector.
4. CLAPPER'S VIEWS ON PUBLIC SECTOR ETHICS IN THE TWENTIETH AND
TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY
Clapper's work clearly contrasts the public sector ethics of the twentieth century with
what is needed for the twenty-first century. The table below summarises this
comparison (Clapper, 2014, p.13).
