Philosophy 114
1.The Nature of Philosophical Questions:
1.1.1. Similarities between philosophical & scientific questions
Proposition 1: The striving of the human mind to understand the way the world works as
well as how it could work. This is accomplished by independent investigation, from a
theoretical perspective and with reason.
Origin philosophy and science: striving away from myth
Myth = a story (especially one about the early history of people or explaining
a natural/social phenomenon) typically involving supernatural forces/beings
A way of making sense of the world around us to feel more secure
Mythical thinking = circular reasoning: the truth of the myth is accepted as a
given, and experiences are then explained in terms of this “truth”
Three main characteristics of Mythical Thinking:
i. Myth is accepted as truth without independently questioning
ii. Closely linked to (ritual) action – to acquire a feeling of control in a
dangerous world
iii. Cannot be questioned or reasoned
Mythical Thinking = Dogmatic Thinking: accept truth of belief without
independent reasoning (opposite of critical thinking)
Philosophy & Science VS Mythical Thinking
i. Greek thinkers become conscious of themselves as people who can make
sense of the world independently (vs just believing in a myth)
ii. Greek thinkers start investigating the world from a theoretical perspective
Theoretical perspective = disinterestedness
Acquiring knowledge for knowing reality as it is, rather than for the
sake of security
iii. Reasonable (philosophy & science) VS Unreasonable (mythical thinking)
When is a theory reasonable? 1. It can be accepted by others and 2. It
does not contradict other truths you accept
iv. General rules or explanation for belief VS using belief itself as explanation
Potential Questions:
Definition of a myth (plus example)
Characteristics of mythical thinking (plus examples)
Differences between mythical (dogmatic) and critical thinking
Shared characteristics of philosophical and scientific thinking
Systematic explanation of “Proposition 1”
1.1.2. Differences between philosophical & scientific questions
Proposition 2: Philosophical and scientific questions focus our theoretical attention in
different directions.
Science is about the discovery and explanation of empirical facts
o Empirical = having to do with observation/experience
, o Scientific questions = Empirical questions of fact
Philosophy: questions that are not empirical questions of fact, but that can be
answered through independent investigation, from a theoretical perspective and
with reason
o Two thought structures of philosophy:
i. Concepts = means by which we order our experience (think what
is)
ii. Evaluative Ideas = means by which we think about what we ought
to do or how we ought to live (think what ought to be)
o Thus, philosophical questions about these structures are:
i. Conceptual questions
ii. Evaluative questions
Types of Philosophical Questions:
1.2. Conceptual Questions
What is a concept?
Concept = means by which we think (instruments for thinking)
Attaches meaning to the things we experience (so that we can identify and
distinguish between them)
We use concepts to categorise things based on their common characteristics
Concepts are understood in the light of their connotation and denotation:
o Connotation = common characteristics by which a particular category is
distinguished from others (intension = characteristics internal to the
concept)
o Denotation = All the things we can think of with the aid of that concept
(extension = how far the concept can be extended)
o Thus, the connotation of a concept determines its denotation
Concepts are expressed through language (words), but words are not identical to
concepts. This can be seen in at least three ways:
1. Different words can express the same concept (e.g., dog, canine, pet: all
point to the same concept in our minds)
2. The same word can express different concepts (e.g., homonyms)
3. When meaning to say something, by referring to a different concept
Logical rules for combining concepts
Concepts can be combined into statements (propositions)
o Propositions can be true/false, but we are able to understand their
meaning
Rules of logic = rules of reasoning
Four logical relationships between concepts
1. Contradictory relationship = connotations of concepts logically exclude
one another – they cannot be thought together (clashing connotations)
1.The Nature of Philosophical Questions:
1.1.1. Similarities between philosophical & scientific questions
Proposition 1: The striving of the human mind to understand the way the world works as
well as how it could work. This is accomplished by independent investigation, from a
theoretical perspective and with reason.
Origin philosophy and science: striving away from myth
Myth = a story (especially one about the early history of people or explaining
a natural/social phenomenon) typically involving supernatural forces/beings
A way of making sense of the world around us to feel more secure
Mythical thinking = circular reasoning: the truth of the myth is accepted as a
given, and experiences are then explained in terms of this “truth”
Three main characteristics of Mythical Thinking:
i. Myth is accepted as truth without independently questioning
ii. Closely linked to (ritual) action – to acquire a feeling of control in a
dangerous world
iii. Cannot be questioned or reasoned
Mythical Thinking = Dogmatic Thinking: accept truth of belief without
independent reasoning (opposite of critical thinking)
Philosophy & Science VS Mythical Thinking
i. Greek thinkers become conscious of themselves as people who can make
sense of the world independently (vs just believing in a myth)
ii. Greek thinkers start investigating the world from a theoretical perspective
Theoretical perspective = disinterestedness
Acquiring knowledge for knowing reality as it is, rather than for the
sake of security
iii. Reasonable (philosophy & science) VS Unreasonable (mythical thinking)
When is a theory reasonable? 1. It can be accepted by others and 2. It
does not contradict other truths you accept
iv. General rules or explanation for belief VS using belief itself as explanation
Potential Questions:
Definition of a myth (plus example)
Characteristics of mythical thinking (plus examples)
Differences between mythical (dogmatic) and critical thinking
Shared characteristics of philosophical and scientific thinking
Systematic explanation of “Proposition 1”
1.1.2. Differences between philosophical & scientific questions
Proposition 2: Philosophical and scientific questions focus our theoretical attention in
different directions.
Science is about the discovery and explanation of empirical facts
o Empirical = having to do with observation/experience
, o Scientific questions = Empirical questions of fact
Philosophy: questions that are not empirical questions of fact, but that can be
answered through independent investigation, from a theoretical perspective and
with reason
o Two thought structures of philosophy:
i. Concepts = means by which we order our experience (think what
is)
ii. Evaluative Ideas = means by which we think about what we ought
to do or how we ought to live (think what ought to be)
o Thus, philosophical questions about these structures are:
i. Conceptual questions
ii. Evaluative questions
Types of Philosophical Questions:
1.2. Conceptual Questions
What is a concept?
Concept = means by which we think (instruments for thinking)
Attaches meaning to the things we experience (so that we can identify and
distinguish between them)
We use concepts to categorise things based on their common characteristics
Concepts are understood in the light of their connotation and denotation:
o Connotation = common characteristics by which a particular category is
distinguished from others (intension = characteristics internal to the
concept)
o Denotation = All the things we can think of with the aid of that concept
(extension = how far the concept can be extended)
o Thus, the connotation of a concept determines its denotation
Concepts are expressed through language (words), but words are not identical to
concepts. This can be seen in at least three ways:
1. Different words can express the same concept (e.g., dog, canine, pet: all
point to the same concept in our minds)
2. The same word can express different concepts (e.g., homonyms)
3. When meaning to say something, by referring to a different concept
Logical rules for combining concepts
Concepts can be combined into statements (propositions)
o Propositions can be true/false, but we are able to understand their
meaning
Rules of logic = rules of reasoning
Four logical relationships between concepts
1. Contradictory relationship = connotations of concepts logically exclude
one another – they cannot be thought together (clashing connotations)
